Phenomenon of Decreased Usage of Nuclear Energy

Decreased Usage of Nuclear Energy: A Qualitative Content Analysis

A Dissertation Presented using the Qualitative Content-Analysis

Komi Emmanuel Fiagbe Gbedegan

Christina Anastasia PH-D, Chair

[Committee Name], [Degree], Committee Member

Date Approved

Komi Emmanuel Fiagbe Gbedegan, 2016

This research proposal explores the phenomenon of decreased usage of nuclear energy at a time when global climate change indicates the need for increased usage of nuclear energy. First, nuclear energy is declining in its share of global energy. Second, nuclear energy offers what might well be the best solution to climate change. Given the threat posed by climate change, greater understanding of why nuclear is decreasing rather than increasing is the purpose of this proposed study. This Research proposal seeks to look at some of the issues facing nuclear power, and how it can overcome these issues to increase share going forward. The research will utilize a qualitative content analysis technique to examine the phenomenon of decreased nuclear energy.

Add a Dedication, if desired [Add Acknowledgements]

Table of Contents

Abstract ii

Dedication iii

Acknowledgements iv

Table of Contents v

List of Tables viii

List of Figures vii

Chapter One: Introduction 1

Topic Overview 1

Problem Statement 3

Research Objectives 5

Purpose Statement 7

Research Question 7

Research Propositions 7

Theoretical Perspectives 10

Assumptions and Biases 11

Significance of the Study 14

Delimitations 15

Limitations 16

Definition of Key Terms 17

General Overview of the Research Design 18

Summary of Chapter One 21

Organization of the Study 23

Chapter Two: Literature Review 24

Overview of Studies to be Analyzed 27

Review of the Studies 36

Social Dimension in Nuclear Energy 40

Political Dimension in Nuclear Energy 46

Economic Dimension in Nuclear Energy 55

Nuclear Energy and Climate Change 56

Conceptual Framework 64

Summary of Chapter Two 69

Chapter Three: Methodology 72

Research Traditions 72

Research Question 75

Research Propostions 76

Research Design 78

Population and Sample 82

Sampling Procedure 84

Instrumentation 86

Validity 87

Reliability 87

Data Collection 88

Data Analysis 89

Ethical Issues in Research 91

Summary of Chapter Three 92

References 96

List of Figures

[Add List of Figures here]

viii

Chapter One: Introduction

Overview/Background

Nuclear energy was first harnessed for power in 1954, at the Obninsk scientific city some 110km outside of Moscow (Josephson, 2000, p.2). At the time, nuclear power was viewed as the energy of the future. Unharnessing the power of the atom, it was thought, was to provide a stable, reliable source of energy for the future. Even at the time, it was known that fossil fuels were not going to sustainable as an energy source. The use of atomic weapons at the end of the Second World War highlighted the value of harnessing the atom — nuclear energy was essential in war, and to meet civilian energy needs. The most technologically advanced societies of that age, the U.S. and USSR, were the leaders in the development of nuclear technology, but they were soon joined by a number of other nations.

Nuclear energy can be described as the energy in the core or nucleus of an atom, which is a small unit that contributes to all matter in the universe. Nuclear energy is derived from nuclear reactions, which are used to produce heat that is most commonly used in steam turbines to generate electricity, especially in a nuclear power station. According to Remo (2015), nuclear energy, which is utilized in weapons and for generating electricity, has the probability of destroying life and saving lives on Earth (p.38). As a result, the likelihood of effective use of nuclear energy to save lives as well as for producing a catastrophic thermonuclear war on Earth has contributed to a huge debate and controversy relating to nuclear energy.

Yet, despite this, there has been a very little new investment in nuclear power. Total capacity has declined as noted above, and given that overall energy production capacity has likely increased in this period, the market share for nuclear power has declined significantly in this period. Three-quarters of the decline came from Japan, but the top five other nuclear power generators also decreased their output as well (Schneider et al., 2013). In 1993, nuclear power peaked at 17% of total global energy production but now sits at 10% (Ibid, p.7). With no major new build programs, the average age of the world’s nuclear reactors is at 28 years, with over 190 units having run for over 30 years, and 44 units having run for over 40 years (Ibid, p.7). There is some new construction, in fourteen countries, with one (the UAE) being a new member of the nuclear power club. There have been many delays that have stalled progress in prospective new members to the nuclear power club, comprised largely of developing world nations (Ibid, p.7).

Problem Statement

There are a number of different issues that need to be examined to determine the future of nuclear power. First, there are the social and political dimensions. So many would-be nuclear powers have had trouble getting their reactors built such as Bangladesh, Belarus, Jordan, Lithuania, Poland, Saudi Arabia and Vietnam among them (Schneider, et al., p.7). In established nuclear power countries, there is a lack of investment in adding new capacity. Where there is new construction, it is to replace aging facilities.

Secondly, nuclear power policy is in the political domain and in many countries public sentiment affects the political domain. So there are issues raised with respect to the perceptions that public and governments have and whether or not those perceptions are responsible for the decline of nuclear power. Two issues, in particular, are whether disasters such as Fukushima impact public policy and whether climate change and the need to transition away from fossil fuels is helping to change public perceptions about nuclear power, and its role in the power mix of a given nation (Sovacool, n.d.).

The third issue that has risen in the course of researching the subject is the handling of nuclear waste. Public perception is not all that relevant to this issue — while there are no studies on the subject, it seems reasonable to conclude that few members of the general public understand the science behind the generation and handling of nuclear waste. But public policy is often informed by the science, and the disposal of nuclear waste remains an emerging field, where scientists are still learning. There are many challenges associated with handling nuclear waste, and these may be playing a role in the diminishing importance of nuclear power around the world (Dunlap, Kraft & Rosa, 2013)

The opportunity presented by the current situation is to determine what the factors are that are constraining the growth of the nuclear power industry. Once these factors are understood, policymakers can have a better sense of how to work around these challenges. There remain a lot of compelling arguments in favor of nuclear power, for its efficiency, for its ability to mitigate the impacts of climate change and even for its safety (Sailor et al., 2000). In order to restore growth to the industry, and the promise of atomic energy, in general, the issues that have befallen nuclear power in recent years will need to be better understood.

The general problem is that nuclear energy has been declining in its share in the global energy resource. The decline in the share of nuclear energy has been influenced by various factors including the political, social, and economic dimensions relating to nuclear power. These varying dimensions have in turn generated several issues that face nuclear power and played a major role in shaping public perception on this source of energy. Public perceptions have in turn had considerable impacts on energy policy and affected the development and growth of nuclear power as a major source of energy (Schwarz & Cochran, 2012).

The specific problem is that nuclear power is not used as a major source of energy despite its potential to help in lessening global climate change or global warming. Global climate change or global warming is brought by burning of fossil fuels and emission of greenhouse gasses into the Earth’s atmosphere. These factors that contribute to the problem of global warming are in turn brought by the current sources of energy. As the problem of global climate change continues to escalate due to the current sources of energy, it is surprising that nuclear power has not been considered as an alternative energy source that could help deal with this problem (Schwarz & Cochran, 2012). In essence, a greater understanding of the decline of nuclear energy in the global energy mix when it can help address global climate change is required.

The specific problem identified for this study is a major issue in the modern society because of the increased problem of global warming. While governments, policymakers, and other relevant stakeholders have been involved in looking for measures to lessen the emission of greenhouse gasses into the Earth’s atmosphere, it is increasingly important to identify a suitable alternative energy source with little or no environmental impact (Wittneben, 2012).

Through this study, the researcher seeks to provide insights on how nuclear energy could be a suitable alternative to meet the ever-increasing energy demands across the globe with little or no environmental impact. In this case, nuclear energy is regarded as a sustainable energy source through balancing the need to meet the current energy demands and ensuring environmental stability (Sailor et al., 2000).

Research Objectives

First, this research seeks to identify whether or not there are any commonalities in the reasons why nuclear power is in decline at a time when it probably should be increasing in importance in the global energy mix.

Secondly, the research will seek to identify if there are certain themes that can be identified with respect to nuclear power policy, and if those themes are intractable or not. By determining the different factors that drive nuclear energy policy, the people who are responsible for making such policy around the world will be better equipped to counter the objections that they might face. The people in the nuclear power industry will also have a better sense of the problems that they need to be resolved.

Third, the research will also seek to determine whether public perceptions and attitudes have any impact on nuclear energy policy or the decline of nuclear power at a time when its significance in the global energy mix should be increasing.

An understanding of the role of public perceptions and attitudes on nuclear power helps in determining the need for re-evaluating existing energy policies. The other important element relating to public perceptions on nuclear power, which will be highlighted in the research, is to ensure the public is well-informed and considers that nuclear power benefits outweigh risks. The researcher will evaluate the link between public attitudes and perceptions towards nuclear power and the extent of knowledge and power regarding the issue.

Fourth, the issues to be addressed by the researcher regarding nuclear power or energy are not expected to solely be about public perception or policy. There are clearly some technical issues that are holding back the development of nuclear power, particularly with regard to waste disposal and management, as well as the risks posed by environmental catastrophe. Fukushima has changed the way a lot of people around the world think about nuclear power. The technical issues will be examined based on social, political, and economic dimensions relating to nuclear power or energy.

Purpose Statement

The purpose of this proposed study is to explore the phenomenon of decreased usage of nuclear energy despite its potential to solve global warming and climate changes. The researcher will explore various issues that have characterized the decrease of nuclear energy recently in order to gain insights on sustainability aspects or sustainability considerations that might support a reversal of this trend and contribute to the industry’s resurgence. The purpose of the study will be achieved through exploring what contributes to decreased nuclear energy usage when global warming and climate changes indicate an increased need to use nuclear power (Remo, 2015).

Research Question

Research Propositions

In order to conduct this study, the researcher has made several propositions that will be utilized in the research process. One of the propositions for this study is that nuclear energy is a sustainable source of energy that meet existing energy needs across the globe while ensuring or enhancing environmental stability. This proposition emerges from the fact that current energy sources contribute to numerous environmental impacts that lead to global warming since they are characterized by increased emissions of greenhouse gases into the Earth’s atmosphere. Despite the decreased usage of nuclear energy, existing studies indicate that it’s a sustainable energy source with capability of addressing the problem of global climate change since it has minimal environmental impacts. Therefore, the study is guided by the proposition that nuclear energy is a sustainable source of energy with capability to meet existing energy needs throughout the world while enhancing environmental stability or ensuring sustainability.

The second proposition for this study is that the decreased usage of nuclear energy is attributable to some commonalities or themes such as nuclear power policy, public perceptions regarding nuclear energy, and technical issues that affect the development of nuclear power plants. While there is existing evidence regarding the potential of nuclear power to meet current energy needs and deal with global climate change, its decline in the global energy mix is partly attributable to ineffective nuclear power policy. Policies adopted in the energy sector do not promote the development of nuclear power plants or contribute to the increase in usage of this sustainable source of energy. Moreover, public perceptions or attitudes have not promoted increased usage of nuclear energy despite its significance in the global energy mix, especially with regards to minimizing environmental impacts associated with the use of several energy sources. These public attitudes are seemingly shaped by nuclear power incidents that have characterized recent operations in nuclear power plants across the globe.

Third, the researcher conducts the study on the premise that public perceptions are strongly linked to existing energy policies. In essence, the decisions of policymakers in the energy sector have largely been influenced by public attitudes or perceptions regarding an energy source and its probable environmental impacts. In some cases, these perceptions that influence energy policy are not based on knowledge regarding the energy source such as nuclear power. The underlying logic here is that the public lacks the technical knowledge with respect to nuclear energy. The general public — in any country — can only form opinions based on what they know, and they know little beyond headline events (Wolsink, 2010). Furthermore, people tend to be risk averse, and nuclear power represents an unknown territory.

The other proposition in this study is that the decline of nuclear energy usage is brought by some technical issues that prevent development of nuclear power plants. There are clearly some technical issues that are holding back the development of nuclear power, particularly with regard to waste disposal and management, as well as the risks posed by environmental catastrophe. These technical issues are influenced by some social, political, and economic dimensions relating to nuclear energy that hinder development of or increase in the number of nuclear power plants worldwide.

The final proposition for this research is that nuclear energy is not viewed as a viable solution to climate change, which contributes to its decreased usage. Generally, nuclear energy is not a significant contributor to climate change. Thus, in some circles it has been marketed as a potential solution to climate change, allowing us to meet our energy needs while at the same time reducing our carbon emissions (Nicholson et al., 2011). As policymakers look for alternatives to the current energy sources, they do not see nuclear power as a viable alternative.

Theoretical Perspectives

The proposed study will seek to address the research question through a pragmatic lens, but also aims to provide valuable information to the industry and to decision makers with respect to nuclear energy policy going forward. The first basic premise that underlies this proposed research is that nuclear energy is generally a viable form of energy. It has been demonstrated to be such for the past sixty years. While there have definitely been a handful of major disasters, there have also been major disasters in other energy fields as well. The occurrence of some major disasters in the nuclear power industry does not necessarily imply that nuclear power is not a viable form of energy. Something like Deepwater Horizon has not necessarily had any impact on public perception of fossil fuel consumption, but Fukushima appears to have affected public perception of nuclear power (Wittneben, 2012). This is part of the lens through which this issue will be examined, as trying to provide useful information for the industry.

That said, it should be noted that the author has no stake in nuclear power or any other form of energy. There is no commercial interest in this proposal for a dissertation, just one from the perspective of someone who is curious about the issue. Nuclear power is fascinating. It entered the public consciousness in the most shocking way possible, at Hiroshima, and fears about nuclear power have had a significant influence on popular culture. Yet, nuclear power is actually fairly benign, in terms of how many people it has actually harmed in its usage as a civilian energy source (Wittneben, 2012). The apparent linking of the concept of nuclear energy and the concept of nuclear holocaust has an interesting effect on energy policy where nuclear power is concerned, and that is one of the underlying motivators behind this paper.

Public policy choices are assumed to be driven by the needs of the public (Wolsink, 2010). This is not necessarily true, the general public is often considered to have a fairly minimal influence on policy decisions, especially in areas where corporate lobbying is intensive, but the basic view of democratic political systems is that the outcomes of those systems roughly reflect the wishes of the people who live and vote within those systems. There will be points in the proposal where democratic nations and undemocratic nations need to be separated in discussing nuclear policy, based on this inherent belief that democratic nations set policy in line with public preference.

A final theoretical perspective is that there is an extent to which marketing is a part of the issue for nuclear power (Nivola, 2004). Issues of public perception, especially in a knowledge vacuum, should have a marketing bent. The same concepts of branding, and influence public opinion in order to increase market share, or to receive a more favorable political environment, can be found in marketing. The author has a business and management background, so one of the underlying theoretical perspectives is that the desire to increase the share of the energy market for nuclear power can be examined as a management problem.

Assumptions and Biases

The author has a general assumption that nuclear energy is generally safe and effective. This report is intended to be neutral in nature, and non-judgmental, but where nuclear power is concerned there is seldom a lack of opinion. Most people seem to have formed an opinion about the safety and desirability of nuclear power, and, in this case, the author is generally in favor of nuclear power. This bias is relatively minor, and is not believed to have influenced the outcome of the research, but it is worth mentioning nevertheless. It is a logical fallacy to assume that because someone has admitted a preconception that everything they write on the subject is thus invalidated. That is far from the case.

The assumption about the nature of democratic societies was stated above. This assumption is rooted in a basic belief about democracy that, in its purest form, it should reflect the wishes of the people. Elected officials and, therefore, viewed as legitimate proxies for public preference. The reality is that this is never really the case. Voters choose their candidates on a wide range of criteria and in most instances the candidate’s stance on nuclear power is not going to be one of the major deciding factors in a vote. This is why the proposition of public perception is considered relevant to policy-making given the link between public attitudes and policymaking, especially in the energy sector.

The basic assumption is rooted in the fundamental nature of democracy, and what it should be in its ideal. Democracy around the world live up to this idea is to varying degrees, a fact that is understood by the author. That said, the idea that democracies reflect the collective will of the people is nevertheless a cornerstone of why society has democracy, and if nothing else makes a good starting point. It is important that the reader understands that this bias exists and that the author is aware that this assumption never holds completely in real life.

There is a further assumption that underlies this study. The author assumes — based on the admittedly imperfect science that is available that there are no major long-term issues with nuclear power. Some of the waste created by nuclear power has a half-life of 1000-year, while some other waste has a half-life of a million years (Alic, 2012). These issues will be described in more detail later on, during the literature review. The implication, however, is clear. Nuclear power is risky, and some of the risks are entirely unknown at present. Should some of these risks bring about a catastrophe that would shift the balance of the decision with respect to nuclear power? This is of particular importance when discussing the merits of nuclear power as a means of mitigating the effects of climate change. So it should be kept in mind that there is an underlying bias towards the idea that there are no major unknown risks associated with nuclear power or that if there are, they are less catastrophic than the known risks associated with global climate change.

The final assumption that should be noted from the outset is that the author is coming at this paper from a managerial perspective. There are other perspectives that could frame this paper just as well, a political science perspective, a scientific one, or even an international relations perspective (Wolsink, 2007). The author is completing a B.Sc. in Management, so management is the focal point. That means there is a focus on the strategic elements of the issue identifying the problem with an eye towards developing solutions to the problem. This perspective will inform some of the approaches, in particular, and the methodology will be limited to approaches that do not overstretch the author’s capabilities with respect to the science of nuclear power or energy and nuclear waste.

Significance of the Study

Most of the current literature on the subject of nuclear waste tends towards one of two types. One type is technical, building the knowledge about materials and natural mineral composition and how those variables affect the storage of nuclear waste material. The other type is related more to the political side of nuclear power, in particular, responses to the Fukushima disaster.

This study aims to bridge these two issues and fill in additional gaps that exist with the general public’s perceptions of nuclear energy. The technical studies inform the political decision-making, but so too do the public perceptions, which is why that area needs to be incorporated into this study as well. Ultimately, there has not been a comprehensive study to identify the myriad issues that are contributing to the decline of nuclear power. While this decline has been known for some time and is the result of many individual policy decisions, the nuclear power industry as a whole is yet to be examined.

Since nuclear power was envisioned in a bigger picture in the 1950s i.e. as a universal technology that could be used in solving global problems in relation to energy, the research will adopt a bigger picture. The use of a bigger picture approach is a major theme in this research process because it will help in generating a better understanding of issues associated with the adoption of nuclear power. In essence, the researcher does not examine the issue from an individual basis but focuses on an aggregate basis of analysis. The aggregate basis of conducting the study will entail examining it from a human level including benefits and problems associated with nuclear power.

Delimitations

The study is bound by the various propositions that have been discussed and will incorporate an open-ended research query, in terms of the literature sought out. But the study will narrow down what is ultimately a highly complex topic and focus specifically on the phenomenon of decreased usage of nuclear energy. This limit on the phenomenon of decreased nuclear energy usage will reflect the need to keep the report focused. There are so many directions available, most of which have received rather a limited study in the academic journals that an entire book could easily be written without covering too much old ground. The study will focus primarily on the previously discussed propositions in order to examine this phenomenon effectively.

The other delimitation that the author must impose is with respect to the scientific information. Nuclear technology is incredibly complex and is a highly-specialized field. It takes many years of study to gain expert knowledge of nuclear technology, including nuclear waste handling. The author is not a nuclear scientist. It is entirely possible that a delimiting factor in this paper will be the scientific capabilities of the author, which may at times be insufficient to truly grasp the concepts being discussed, especially in the scientific journals. It is worth noting, however, that the people who set out energy policy in most countries are also not nuclear scientists, and must rely on the same non-scientific interpretation of scientific data in order to make their decisions (Nivola, 2004). But while the author is more or less in the same situation as policy-makers, this is still a delimiting factor that could affect the study.

It is not known if it will be possible to determine these reasons. Each country has its own reasons for its policies with respect to nuclear power, and these are not always disclosed. Even within democracies, it is not always possible to obtain this information. While this reality may constrain the study, it does not mean that the study should not be attempted. It is critically important to understand what the different underlying factors of public policy are with respect to nuclear power and its decreased usage in the global energy mix. So that is the main objective for the research.

Limitations

In addition to the limits on the study that the researcher controls, there are also external limits that will affect the study. The biggest limitation on the study will doubtless be with respect to the availability of data. Indeed, one of the reasons why democratic societies were the focal point of decision-making is because they tend to be more transparent. There are undemocratic nations with nuclear power — the first one, Russia, among them, but the lack of transparency will hamper the availability of reliable data. In this case, the development and enactment of the energy policy towards increased usage of nuclear energy are not really clear and does not depend on a democratic process. The undemocratic nations with nuclear power have not subjected their nuclear industries to political turbulence. This is largely different from industrial nations that have subjected their nuclear industries and nuclear power to political turbulence (Nivola, 2004). This places specific limits on the study, as the author has to work with the information that is available in the public sphere. There is definitely a limit to what license can be taken with this information.

Another limit will be that the study will have to focus on research published in English. While most academic journals publish in English, this study will also make use of government publications, white papers, and other industry-specific technical materials. These may not be published in English, but the author can only work with what the author can understand. Data that is published exclusively in Russian, Chinese or Arabic will, for this reason, have to be omitted from the study.

Definition of Key Terms

Actinide: a class of elements on the periodic table, many are by-products of nuclear fission, and are reprocessed back into fuel.

Content analysis — This is a technique for summarizing any kind of content using various aspects to allow for a more objective evaluation instead of making comparisons based on the researcher’s perceptions.

Fukushima: a Japanese nuclear power complex. When a strong earthquake struck off the coast of Japan on March 11, 2011, it damaged three reactors at the Fukushima I facility, leading to a meltdown. As of the time of writing, Fukushima has yet to be restarted and the Japanese government has long-run plans to phase out the facility.

GWe– Gigawatt electrical, a measure of power generation

Half-life — This is the time it takes a radioactive substance to lose half of its radioactivity. The half-life is a means of measuring how powerfully radioactive something is. Nuclear waste material half-lives range from 1000 years to 1 million years, which make their safe storage especially challenging.

Nuclear Energy – The energy in the core or nucleus of an atom, which is a small unit that contributes to all matter in the universe.

(Nuclear) Meltdown – There is no fixed definition of a meltdown. However, it typically refers to core damage from overheating. At least one nuclear element in a reactor will exceed its melting point during a meltdown, and the result is a threat to the stability of the entire system. Radiation poisoning of nearby areas is a known risk of meltdowns, which is why they are so feared by the public.

Pyrochlore — a chemical used to treat plutonium prior to disposal

Radioactive ash — one of the hazardous by-products of nuclear energy production

Reprocessing — a method of handling nuclear waste, reprocessing takes spent nuclear fuel and uses it for other applications. This is sometimes weapons, but not always so.

Sustainability — The ability to endure while remaining diverse and productive for a long period of time.

To vitrify — a technique that involves turning a liquid into a glass.

General Overview of the Research Design

The nature of this research issue requires a more objective analysis of evidence and selected studies. As a result, the researcher will utilize qualitative content analysis technique in the study. Qualitative research methodology is one of the two basic research processes that are utilized to obtain data. Generally, qualitative research uses a technique through which data obtained from field and historical comparative research are evaluated using procedures for interpreting cases and contexts (Neuman, 2003). This process is carried out in order to define concepts and identify links between social interactions and their respective meanings. Since the nature of the research problem usually determines research design, the most appropriate methodology for this study is qualitative research.

When conducting this qualitative study, the researcher will utilize content analysis, which implies that the research is a qualitative content analysis. Content analysis research methodologies usually involve the use of a systematic analysis of the contents of gathered data and inductive strategies geared towards the creation of patterns and themes (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005). Through this method, themes and patterns relating to the phenomenon under investigation will be derived from comparing, contrasting, and categorizing the content of qualitative data obtained regarding the research problem. This research design is appropriate for the study because existing knowledge and literature about the use of nuclear energy is obtained from various studies and surveys that are documented in peer-reviewed journal articles.

This research design has been developed on the basis that the research question is explanatory in nature since it focuses on the why question. Generally, researchers usually develop research designs depending on whether the research question is descriptive or explanatory (New York University, n.d.). In this case, the research question is seemingly explanatory since the researcher will focus on examining why nuclear energy has declined in its significance in the global energy mix despite being a suitable alternative for dealing with the problem of global climate change.

Since the research question is explanatory in nature, the researcher will develop casual explanations to argue different phenomena related to the issue (New York University, n.d.). The casual explanations will act at the basis for identifying the various issues relating to nuclear energy and its decline in the global energy mix. Moreover, these casual explanations will provide insights regarding the link between these issues and the increasing reluctance to use nuclear power as an alternative source of energy that will help deal with global climate change.

A typical qualitative or quantitative methodology will not work for this study because of the need to identify patterns and themes in existing literature on this phenomenon. This research issue requires a collection of methodical techniques for resolving obvious contradictions in research findings and translating results from various studies. These processes cannot be achieved through a typical qualitative or quantitative research methodology, which implies that they will not work or be suitable for the issue under evaluation. Moreover, the research topic is a broad issue that has generated considerable attention in the recent past, which has led to numerous research and studies. These researchers and studies need to be synthesized in attempts to deduce accurate findings. Consequently, a typical qualitative or quantitative methodology would not be suitable in generating accurate findings regarding the issue under evaluation.

The research design is that this qualitative content analysis will be based on constant comparison, which is a common qualitative research technique. The study will primarily depend on individual peer-reviewed articles, which provide an opportunity to focus research attention. The use of constant comparison in this study is attributable to the fact that this method allows interpretations of patterns and themes in the data. In this case, the unit of comparison is the terms used in the textual search.

The content analysis process for this study of the phenomenon of decreased nuclear energy usage will be based on the methodology of Klaus Krippendorff, which involves making specific inferences from studies through replicable and valid method. By the end of the study, the researcher will synthesize these independent studies and provide insights on what contributes to decreased nuclear energy usage.

Summary of Chapter One

Nuclear energy is the energy in the core or nucleus of an atom, which is a small unit that contributes to all matter in the universe. Throughout history, nuclear energy has not only been essential in war but has also been utilized in meeting the energy needs of civilians. Currently, nuclear energy accounts for approximately 10% of energy needs across the globe. In addition, only 31 countries worldwide have nuclear reactors i.e. 421 reactors across the globe by the end of 2013. However, the nuclear power industry has experienced a considerable decline over the past two decades because of the very little investment in nuclear power throughout the world. While the production capacity has slightly increased during this period, the market share for nuclear power has decreased significantly.

This study seeks to examine the issues that have befallen nuclear energy in recent years in order to provide necessary insights that could contribute to the restoration of the growth of this industry and realization of the promise or potential of atomic energy in general. It is quite evident that the development and growth of nuclear power have been largely affected by social, political, and economic factors, which shape public perception. Public perceptions, attitudes, and opinions regarding nuclear power in turn affect political decision-making (Wolsink, 2007).

The main objective for this study is to examine the phenomenon of decreased usage of nuclear energy at a time when global climate change indicates a need for its increased usage in the global energy mix. As a result, the researcher will identify certain themes that are evident with regards to nuclear power policy and whether the themes are intractable or not. This research is based on several theoretical perspectives including nuclear energy is generally a viable form of energy, public policy choices are driven by needs of the public, and nuclear energy is not regarded as a viable solution to the ever-increasing problem of climate change.

The author has several assumptions and biases when conducting the study including nuclear energy is generally safe and effective, the nature of democratic societies; there are no major long-term issues with nuclear power and the managerial perspective of the researcher. The significance of the study is that the researcher seeks to contribute to restoration of the growth of nuclear power plants through identifying the major reasons for its decreased usage. The limitations of this study include limited availability of data, especially the nature of democratic societies relative to nuclear power and exclusive focus on studies published in English.

Organization of Dissertation (or Proposal)

This study is organized in different chapters that seek to examine the issue to be discussed and achieving research objectives. The first chapter provides an overview of the dissertation, which includes the topic overview, problem statement, purpose of the study, research objectives, hypotheses, theoretical perspectives, assumptions and biases, and significance of the study. The other issues covered in this chapter include delimitation, limitations of the study, definition of key terms, general overview of the research design, summary of the chapter, and organization of the dissertation or study.

The second chapter is a literature review, which examines existing literature regarding the topic. In this case, the researcher examines peer-reviewed journal articles and other studies relating to the phenomenon of nuclear energy. This evaluation is carried based on the propositions of the study and its theoretical perspectives.

The third chapter provides the research design i.e. a qualitative content analysis on the phenomenon of decreased nuclear energy usage. This chapter also includes research traditions, research question, research design, validity and reliability of the design, ethical issues in the research, and a summary of issues discussed in the chapter.

The fourth chapter of this dissertation provides findings of the analysis conducted in the previous chapters through constant comparison. The findings of the comparisons are discussed based on their relevance to the research objectives or topic and content analysis of studies on usage of nuclear energy relative to its potential to effectively address climate change.

The final chapter provides conclusions based on study findings and results of the comparisons or evaluation. This chapter includes limitations of the study, implications for practice, implications of the study, recommendations for future research, and reflections. The other parts of the dissertation are references and appendices.

Chapter Two: Literature Review

Nuclear power is the splitting of atoms (fission) in order to create power. The fissile material is typically an enriched form of uranium (Josephson, 2000, p.2). Nuclear energy was first harnessed for power in 1954, at the Obninsk scientific city some 110km outside of Moscow (Josephson, 2000, p.2). At the time, nuclear power was viewed as the energy of the future. Unharnessing the power of the atom, it was thought, was provided a stable, reliable source of energy for the future. Even at the time, it was known that fossil fuels were not going to sustainable as an energy source. The use of atomic weapons at the end of the Second World War highlighted the value of harnessing the atom nuclear energy was essential in war, and to meet civilian energy needs. The most technologically advanced societies of that age, the U.S., and USSR, were the leaders in the development of nuclear technology, but they were soon joined by a number of other nations (Josephson, 2000, p.3).

The studies that have been identified for analysis have been selected based on their relevance to the research topic. The researcher has not only examined published articles but also used a robust search to identify contextual articles relating to this issue. These studies have effectively met the selection criteria for the location of relevant studies. They cover a wide range of issues that are relevant to the phenomenon under evaluation and provide important insights that can be used to generate suitable and accurate findings. Some of the most common issues covered in these studies that make them appropriate for study include public perceptions towards nuclear energy, energy policy making processes and initiatives, impact of accidents in nuclear power plants on policy making initiatives, and the suitability of nuclear energy as a solution to the problem of climate change across the world. These were important aspects that influenced the researcher’s decision to select the studies and incorporate them in this research. The studies that will be analyzed for this research include

Becker, U., Coppi, B., Cosman, E., Demos, P., Kerman, A. & Milner, R. (2008, November/December). A Perspective on the Future Energy Supply of the United States: The Urgent Need for Increased Nuclear Power. MIT Faculty Newsletter, 21(2). Retrieved from http://web.mit.edu/fnl/volume/212/milner.html

Bickerstaff, K., Lorenzoni, I., Pidgeon, N., Poortinga, W. & Simmons, P. (2011). Reframing Nuclear Power in the UK Energy Debate: Nuclear Power, Climate Change Mitigation and Radioactive Waste. Public Understanding of Science,17(2), 145-169.

Bird, D.K., Haynes, K., van den Honert, R., McAneney, J. & Poortinga, W. (2014, February). Nuclear Power in Australia: A Comparative Analysis of Public Opinion Regarding Climate Change and the Fukushima Disaster. Energy Policy, 65, 644-653.

Corner, A., Venables, D., Spence, A., Poortinga, W., Demski, C., Pidgeon, N. (2011). Nuclear Power, Climate Change and Energy Security: Exploring British Public Attitudes. Energy Policy, 39(2011), 4823-4833.

Destek, M.A. (2015). Nuclear Energy Consumption and Economic Growth in G-6 Countries: Evidence from Bootstrap Rolling Window. International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, 5(3), 759-764.

Duffy, R.J. (2012). After Fukushima: Nuclear Power in the United States. Retrieved from University Pompeu Fabra website: http://regulation.upf.edu/exeter-12-papers/Paper%20236%20-%20Duffy%202012%20-%20After%20Fukushima.pdf

Greenberg, M. & Truelove, H.B. (2011). Energy Choices and Risk Beliefs: Is it Just Global Warming and Fear of a Nuclear Power Plant Accident? Risk Analysis, 31(5), 819-831.

Hultman, N. & Koomey, J. (2013). Three Mile Island: The Driver of U.S. Nuclear Power’s Decline? Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 69(3), 63-70.

Kleiner, K. (2008, September 24). Nuclear Energy: Assessing the Emissions. Nature Reports Climate Change, 99. doi:10.1038/climate.2008.99

Pidgeon, N., Lorenzoni, I. & Poortinga, W. (2008). Climate Change or Nuclear Power – No Thanks! A Quantitative Study of Public Perceptions and Risk Framing in Britain. Global Environmental Change, 18(1), 69-85.

Ramana, M.V. (2011). Nuclear Power and the Public. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 67(4), 43-51.

Sailor, W., Bodansky, D., Braun, C., Fetter, S. & van der Zwaan, B. (2000). A Nuclear Solution to Climate Change? Science, 288(5469), 1177-1178.

Schneider, M. & Froggatt, A. (2014). 2012-2013 World Nuclear Industry Status Report. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 70(1), 70-84.

Schwarz, P.M. & Cochran, J.A. (2012, October 3). Renaissance or Requiem: Is Nuclear Energy Cost Effective in a Post-Fukushima World? Contemporary Economic Policy, 31(4), 691-707.

Skea, J., Lechtenbohmer, S. & Asuka, J. (2013). Climate Policies After Fukushima: Three Views. Climate Policy, 13(1), 36-54.

Slovic, P., Flynn, J. & Layman, M. (1991).Perceived Risk, Trust and the Politics of Nuclear Waste. Science, 254(5038), 1603-1607.

Sovacool, B. & Cooper, C. (2008). Nuclear Nonsense: Why Nuclear Power is No Answer to Climate Change and the World’s Post-Kyoto Energy Challenges. William & Mary Environmental Law and Policy Review, 1 (2008).

Winslow, A. (2011). A Nuclear Renaissance: The Role of Nuclear Energy in Mitigating Climate Change. AIP Conference Proceedings, 1342, 127-134. doi: 10.1063/1.3583179

Wittneben, B.B.F. (2012, January). The Impact of the Fukushima Nuclear Accident on European Energy Policy. Environmental Science & Policy, 15(1), 1-3.

Wolsink, M. (2007).Planning of Renewable Schemes: Deliberative and Fair Decision-making on Landscape Issues Instead of Reproachful Accusations of Non-cooperation. Energy Policy, 35 (2007), 2692-2704.

Overview of Studies to be Analyzed

Becker et al. (2008) provided a perspective regarding energy supply of America in the future with specific focus on nuclear power. Actually, this study was carried out with regards to the urgent need for increased usage of nuclear energy. The authors argue that the United States requires instant development of a large scale sustainable energy source that does not emit greenhouse gases. They conclude that nuclear power is the most suitable energy source for the future energy needs of the United States since it’s carbon-free, scalable, technologically feasible, and economical.

Bickerstaff et al. (2011), postulate that nuclear power is an effective means of mitigating climate change because it is not associated with increased use of fossil fuels. However, there is increased reluctance to accept nuclear power as a viable option to resolve climate change, which necessitates reframing nuclear energy debate in the future. There is the possibility, however, that information campaigns can reframe nuclear power. In particular, the fear of climate change is growing, and at a rate faster than the fear of nuclear energy. While public perception of nuclear power is not especially safe at the moment, it may be that in the near future the fear of climate change is greater than the fear of nuclear energy, and at that point there may be a shift in public sentiment with respect to nuclear energy (Bickerstaff et al., 2011).

Bird et al. (2014) conducted a comparative assessment of public opinion about climate change and the Fukushima disaster with regards to nuclear power in Australia. The analysis found that Australians believe nuclear power provides cleaner, more efficient alternative to coal but are against nuclear energy because of safety concerns and distrust. Therefore, there is a reluctance to accept nuclear power, which is a reflection of the fragile attitudinal state that is easily swayed. Bird et al. (2014) noted that public opinion in Australia changed after Fukushima, from 42% of Australians in favor of nuclear power, as a means of reducing carbon emissions, to ranking it as 40% opposed a year later, and well behind three other options for addressing climate change through a shift in energy policy. The views of nuclear power have always been more negative after disasters. Bird’s study (2014) showed that in Australia, nuclear power as a solution to climate change went from being a favorable option pre-Fukushima to an unfavorable option post-Fukushima. This illustrates that under normal circumstances when there are no disasters; nuclear power is viewed as a method of reducing carbon emissions while retaining our energy capacity. The fact that the views about nuclear energy were strong before Fukushima shows that this is essentially a default position, but that when people are reminded of the risks associated with nuclear energy, they turn to other ways of addressing climate change. Nuclear power must compete, in the mindset of the public, with renewable energy sources, in terms of the climate change debate.

According to Corner et al. (2011), public perceptions and attitudes towards nuclear energy in the United Kingdom have been sharply divided because of the increased effect of concerns regarding climate change and energy security on the energy policy in Britain. Based on their analysis, the researchers conclude that these concerns will only enhance acceptance of nuclear energy under restricted circumstances.

Destek (2015) conducted a research on consumption of nuclear energy and economic growth in G-6 countries. Through a bootstrap rolling window, the researcher examines the casual relationship between nuclear energy consumption and economic growth across varying sample periods. The researcher concludes that while there is no casual link between nuclear energy consumption and economic growth for all sample periods, the relationship may be present in certain subperiods that show the likelihood of such periods to generate more reliable results.

Duffy (2012) examined nuclear power in the United States in the aftermath of the Fukushima accident, which prompted a global reevaluation of nuclear power. While other regions reevaluated their nuclear energy policies and programs in the aftermath of Fukushima, the United States did not allow the accident to disrupt its nuclear programs. The United States was regarded as surprisingly resistant to concerns expressed regarding nuclear power in other countries. In a study conducted by The Huffington Post in the aftermath of the Fukushima incident, 25% of people who opposed nuclear power in 24 countries where the survey was conducted opposed nuclear power because of the devastating impacts of the incident (Duffy, 2012). The same survey demonstrated that the incident galvanized already negative perceptions and opinions regarding nuclear power in Germany and Italy. Duffy (2012) concludes his analysis of the effect of this incident by stating that the Fukushima accident’s main impact on energy policy was to largely reinforce the existing negative perceptions and provoke negative decisive action in countries that were already skeptical about nuclear power.

Greenberg & Truelove (2011) conducted a study on whether energy choices and risk beliefs regarding nuclear energy are influenced by global warming or accidents in nuclear power plants. Their study was a survey on 3,200 residents in the United States that focused on issues linked to the use of coal and nuclear fuels to generate electrical energy. First, the authors postulate that concerns regarding nuclear power plant accidents contributed to reduced support for nuclear energy whereas concerns about global warming resulted in less coal use. Secondly, they argue that risk takers favor increased dependence on nuclear energy despite the likelihood of a severe nuclear power plant accident while coal is favored despite its environmental impacts and global warming.

Hultman & Koomey (2013) carried out a study in which they examined the role of Three Mile Island in America’s nuclear power decline. In the study, the authors state that America’s nuclear power industry experienced significant challenges in the aftermath of the Three Mile Island, which exacerbated the already existing problems in this industry. This industry already faced significant economic and competitiveness obstacles given that safety concerns have been the main factor in shaping public opinion about nuclear energy. Hultman & Koomey (2013) support claims that the nuclear power industry has experienced cancelation of 40% of all reactors in the United States between 1960 and 2010 (p.63). This cancelation of reactors in the past few decades has in turn forced the nuclear power industry to face significant financial and competitiveness obstacles, which has become prevalent across the globe.

Kleiner (2008) examines the feasibility of nuclear energy based on emissions of greenhouse gases. This study is carried out on the premise that nuclear power has traditionally been regarded as being environmentally harmful. In light of increased concerns of environmental problems brought by climate change, nuclear energy is increasingly being considered as a green power provider. This energy source is being considered as a sustainable energy source with ability to generate large amounts of energy with minimal to no carbon emissions. The author argues that these factors have contributed to renewed support for the nuclear power industry though the usage of nuclear energy continues to decline.

Pidgeon, Lorenzoni & Poortinga (2008) stated that climate change and nuclear energy are considered problematic by people with regards to risks and reluctance to accept nuclear power as a solution to climate change. These findings were based on a quantitative assessment of public perceptions and risk framing in the United Kingdom. These researchers noted that most respondents in the British public did not have a sophisticated understanding of the risk-based analysis on which to base their opinions. There are very few Britons who unconditionally accept nuclear power as a means of mitigating climate change and carbon emissions, and attitudes do not appear to be shifting particularly quickly, based on surveys conducted over the years.

Ramana (2011) conducted a survey regarding nuclear power and the public in light of support and usage of nuclear energy. The author argued that opinion polls indicate that public support for this energy source has decreased following the Fukushima accident. This trend is not only evident in Japan where the accident occurred but also across other nations worldwide. Based on this study, nuclear energy usage continues to decrease because people oppose nuclear power for various reasons though the most common reason is the perception that nuclear energy is a risky technology.

Sailor et al. (2000) examines whether nuclear power is a solution to climate change given the need for a transformation of the global energy supply to mitigate climate change. They conclude that nuclear power is a viable option despite its decrease in the global energy mix. However, nuclear power is characterized by several barriers that are surmountable. Sailor et al. (2000) argue that nuclear is the only viable option, based on their calculations. The authors note that nuclear power can bring about the target greenhouse gas emission reductions faster than any other form of energy generation, which puts nuclear power at the center of the debate with respect to reducing carbon output.

Schneider & Froggatt (2014) provided an analysis of the world nuclear industry in 2013 in which they examine the impact of the Fukushima disaster on the global nuclear industry. The report examines this impact with regards to global electricity generation and the current trends of nuclear power programs throughout the globe. The report also provides an outlook of nuclear reactor units that are currently operating and under construction in the aftermath of this incident. The researchers conclude that global nuclear renaissance, which was flourishing before Fukushima, has stalled since the accident generated additional issues to the already existing grave problems, especially poor economics. Schneider & Froggatt (2014) contend that the decline in this industry is reflected in the reduction of global electricity generation from nuclear power plants by 7% in 2012, which was a record (p.70).

Schwarz & Cochran (2012) examined the cost-effectiveness of nuclear energy following the Fukushima accident, which contributed to a reconsideration of the role of nuclear energy power production in the future. These researchers focused on examining the future viability of nuclear energy in comparison with lessening dependence on it and its suitability as an alternative to burning fossil fuels. They state that public perceptions have in turn had considerable impacts on energy policy and affected the development and growth of nuclear power as a major source of energy. Decisions to decrease or stop the future use of nuclear power were not based on a rational economic analysis in the aftermath of the Fukushima disaster.

Skea, Lechtenbohmer and Asuka (2013) examined climate policies in the aftermath of the Fukushima accident given the worldwide impact of this incident. Through focusing on three major economies, they conclude that climate policies across the globe varied after Fukushima due to various reasons and factors. They studied the response to nuclear power as a climate change solution in the UK, Germany, and Japan, after Fukushima. The authors note that in all three countries, citizens and policymakers alike had seen nuclear power as a viable strategy for mitigating carbon emissions and managing climate change.

Slovic, Flynn and Layman (1991) evaluated perceived risk, trust, and politics in relation to nuclear waste given the political opposition against disposal of high-level radioactive wastes that was fueled by public perceptions regarding risk. An evaluation of public perceptions highlighted deeply rooted fear that has existed since the discovery of radioactivity and linked to the creation and use of nuclear weapons. In their study, they examined the link between perceptions and policy-making with respect to nuclear power.

Sovacool & Cooper (2008) examined the potential solution of nuclear power as an answer to climate change and energy demands worldwide. They concluded that nuclear power is a poor alternative or answer to meeting the energy challenges of the most carbon-constrained, post-Kyoto world. This is primarily because nuclear power generators are increasingly vulnerable to unresolved economic, environmental, social, and infrastructural problems, especially in comparison to renewable energy technologies. They state that social dimensions relating to the growth of nuclear power have largely been centered on public opinions about nuclear power that have been shaped by accidents that have taken place in the nuclear power industry such as the Chernobyl incident and Fukushima accident.

Winslow (2011) conducted a research regarding the role of nuclear energy in lessening climate change. This study was carried out based on the established levels of carbon emissions that should be accomplished by 2050 to help deal with global warming brought by current energy sources. Moreover, they analysis was carried out to examine the likelihood of achieving these levels despite predictions of a significant increase in electricity demand worldwide. The researcher concluded that many governments and renowned environmentalists are turning to nuclear energy as a sustainable energy source that is clean and reliable with minimal environmental effects. This shift towards nuclear energy is brought by the fact that renewable sources of energy are limited by intermittency of natural energy sources, cost and environmental obstacles, and concerns regarding scale-ability.

Wittneben (2012) conducted a study to examine the impact of the Fukushima nuclear accident on energy policy in the European region. This analysis was carried out on the premise that the incident generated considerable debate regarding the future of nuclear energy. The researcher concludes that Europe’s response to the accident differed substantially among member states because it was geographically removed from the radioactive fallout. This difference was also influenced by the extent of media reporting, increased trust in renewable energy technologies, a sense of cultural proximity to the Japanese, and history of nuclear resistance. According to Wittneben (2012), the intensity of media reports has played a crucial role in the social dimension of nuclear power since media informs a lot of what people perceive about key issues. The researcher studied the effects of Fukushima on policy-making in both Germany and the UK. Wittneben’s study looked at the other factors and predicted that the reaction to Fukushima would be stronger in Germany, and more negative towards nuclear power, at least compared with the United Kingdom.

Wolsink (2010) evaluated the controversy in the environmental policy infrastructure since decisions for developing new infrastructure is usually contested. Similarly, the social acceptability of developing infrastructure as an important element of environmental policy is also contested and relatively unclear. He concludes by arguing that social acceptance of nuclear power facilities and programs is a multi-dimensional phenomenon demonstrated across geographical scales and governance levels.

Review of the Studies

Today, nuclear energy provides for roughly 10% of the world’s energy needs. There are reactors in 31 countries, for a total of 427 reactors as of 2013 (Schneider et al., 2013). That is seventeen fewer reactors than there were in 2002, and the installed capacity of the industry is at 364 GWe, down from 375 GWe in 2002. Thus, the nuclear power industry is in decline. While some of this can be attributed to the Fukushima disaster that took some of Japan’s capacity offline, the fact that nuclear energy is not growing is somewhat perplexing. Since 2002, the world’s collective knowledge of climate change has increased substantially. Many nations around the world made commitments to reduce their carbon emissions in the Kyoto Protocol (UN FCC, 2014). Destek (2015) suggests that nuclear energy usage is largely influenced by economic growth across countries, especially developed countries. However, the limited sources of energy and fluctuations of prices of energy have forced countries to look for new sources of energy such as renewable sources or nuclear power. In this study, Destek (2015) argues that nuclear energy has become an important energy source because it does emit carbon-dioxide and generate environmental harms when used to produce heat and electricity. Despite recognition of its importance, the use of nuclear energy as a sustainable energy source has declined across the globe and is largely influenced by economic growth across countries.

Schneider & Froggatt (2014) concurs with the existing studies regarding the decline of nuclear power industry by arguing that the decline in this industry is reflected in the reduction of global electricity generation from nuclear power plants by 7% in 2012, which was a record (p.70). Hultman & Koomey (2013) support these claims by stating that the nuclear power industry has experienced cancelation of 40% of all reactors in the United States between 1960 and 2010 (p.63). This cancelation of reactors in the past few decades has in turn forced the nuclear power industry to face significant financial and competitiveness obstacles, which has become prevalent across the globe.

Yet, despite this, there has been very little new investment in nuclear power. Total capacity has declined as noted above, and given that overall energy production capacity has likely increased in this period, the market share for nuclear power has declined significantly in this period. Three-quarters of the decline came from Japan, but the top five other nuclear power generators also decreased their output as well (Schneider et al., 2013). In 1993, nuclear power peaked at 17% of total global energy production but now sits at 10% (Ibid, p.7). With no major new build programs, the average age of the world’s nuclear reactors is at 28 years, with over 190 units having run for over 30 years, and 44 units having run for over 40 years (Ibid, p.7). There is some new construction, in fourteen countries, with one (the UAE) being a new member of the nuclear power club. There have been many delays that have stalled progress in prospective new members to the nuclear power club, comprised mainly of developing world nations (Ibid, p.7).

Kleiner (2008) differs with existing studies on the development of nuclear power plants and investments in nuclear energy. He argues that the significance of climate change as a major environmental problem has contributed to increased attention on nuclear energy, which has traditionally been regarded as environmentally harmful. The increased attention has made nuclear energy to have a reputation as a green power provider that generates huge amounts of energy with minimal to no carbon emissions. In this study, the researcher states that some developed countries have increased their investments in nuclear energy as a sustainable, clean energy source. For example, the United States government has increased its support for nuclear energy whereas Japan recently announced plans to increase investments on green technology by $4 billion including investments in nuclear energy.

However, other studies indicate that nuclear energy development and usage is in decline and do not concur with Kleiner (2008). Generally, countries with the greatest usage of nuclear power are the U.S., France, and Russia. The top ten are rounded out by South Korea, Germany, China, Canada, Ukraine, the UK and Sweden (Schneider et al., 2013), with the top five accounting for two-thirds of global nuclear power generation. Three nations have phased out nuclear power altogether and in many other nations capacity peaked several years ago. Nuclear power only makes up 50% or more of power generation capacity in three countries — France, Slovakia and Belgium (Schneider, et al., p. 13). The evidence is that the use of nuclear power is in decline, which defines a problem for the industry. In several countries, such as South Korea, Belgium, and Mexico, a combination of repair work and quality control scandals reduced capacity (Schneider et al., p.13).

The decline in the development and growth of nuclear power or energy is attributed to social, political, and economic factors that influence public perceptions, attitudes, opinions, and public policy regarding this issue. Nivola (2004), states that political and economic factors have been crucial factors in the stuttered development and growth of the nuclear power industry. Political and economic factors have been the major causes of troubles and frustrations relating to the growth of nuclear energy across the globe. These factors have not only influenced public perceptions and attitudes but also affected policy development relating to the development and growth of nuclear power. Social dimensions relating to the growth of nuclear power have largely been centered on public opinions about nuclear power that have been shaped by accidents that have taken place in the nuclear power industry such as the Chernobyl incident and Fukushima accident (Sovacool, n.d.). These perceptions have affected the construction of nuclear power plants and the overall growth of nuclear energy.

Social Dimension in Nuclear Energy

The social dimension in nuclear energy is largely attributed to people’s perceptions about nuclear power on how informed they are. The starting point in recent literature for understanding the effects of disasters on public perceptions with respect to nuclear power is, naturally, Fukushima. The Fukushima disaster occurred in March 2011, in Japan, when an earthquake triggered a tsunami that in turn damaged several reactors at the Fukushima site. The threat posed to Japan in particular by these reactors and the high level of publicity that the tsunami and the Fukushima reactor issues received led to a number of academic studies and white papers that specifically evaluated the effects of Fukushima on public policy. Moreover, public opinions regarding nuclear power changed in the aftermath of the Chernobyl incident in 1987.

In general, people are spurred to action by a number of factors. One is that there are structural barriers that make it difficult for people to undertake climate-positive actions. But more than that, people are typically oriented towards the status quo change is only something people are motivated to undertake when a crisis emerges. In terms of climate change, that crisis point apparently has not hit, though the hurricane of misinformation coming from the fossil fuel industry and conservative politicians doubtless contributes to the problem, because crises that do occur are obfuscated. Whatever the excuse, psychological barriers may be, colloquially known as “dragons of inaction” limit the ability of the public to change perceptions with respect to climate change. It’s either the public lacks the scientific literacy to understand the issue, they cling to ideological worldviews that prevent them from accepting reality or they fear change because that’s what people do (Gifford, 2011).

The other major social dimension aspect in nuclear energy is the fact that growth in the nuclear power industry across the globe has been lagging for over two decades. The installed nuclear power capacity has grown every year by a meager 1.3% since the 1987 Chernobyl incident. This slight growth over the past two decades has occurred despite the annual growth and increase in the demand of electricity by nearly 3% every year. While the total primary energy consumption has increased by more than 26% in the past two decades, the aggregate growth in installed nuclear power has been a scanty 15% (Sovacool, n.d.). Hultman & Koomey (2013) support this view by claiming that the United States has canceled approximately 40% of all its nuclear power reactors between 1960 and 2010. These cancelations have played a role in the decline of the industry by generating considerable financial and competitiveness obstacles across the globe. The same view of decline in nuclear power industry as an important factor in the social dimension in nuclear energy is upheld by Schneider & Froggatt (2014). These researchers reported that nuclear power industry experienced a record 7% decline in the global electricity generation from nuclear power plants in 2012. According to Wittneben (2012), the intensity of media reports has played a crucial role in the social dimension of nuclear power since media informs a lot of what people perceive about key issues. In his study, Wittneben (2012), states that the German media covered Fukushima extensively, but in a manner that provided in-depth scientific explanations. In the UK, media reports were less frequent and were soon eclipsed by UK troops fighting in Libya. The differences in coverage would lead to the view that Germans would have higher awareness and their opinions would be more informed. There would be a risk that British citizens, having received fairly limited knowledge, might be less aware of Fukushima but could have a higher level of concern because they did not receive the same high level of technical information.

Similarly, Carter (1987) found that the views about the handling of nuclear waste shifted from being something that should be recycled if possible to being something that needed to be buried deep in the ground in a study published in the aftermath of Chernobyl disaster. Dunlap, Kraft & Rosa (1993) state that the perceptions of nuclear waste handling were affected by Three Mile Island since the effects seemed to be fairly long-lasting. This in turn contributed to increased public debate about the handling of nuclear waste which continued on through the 1980s, many years after Three Mile Island was no longer a major talking point. Sovacool (n.d.), concurs with Dunlap, Kraft & Rosa (2013) by stating that social dimensions relating to the growth of nuclear power have largely been centered on public opinions about nuclear power that have been shaped by accidents that have taken place in the nuclear power industry such as the Chernobyl incident and Fukushima accident.

In a study conducted by The Huffington Post in the aftermath of the Fukushima incident, 25% of people who opposed nuclear power in 24 countries where the survey was conducted opposed nuclear power because of the devastating impacts of the incident (Duffy, 2012). The same survey demonstrated that the incident galvanized already negative perceptions and opinions regarding nuclear power in Germany and Italy. These negative views were evident in the major public votes or policy decisions carried out in the aftermath of the accident. Actually, an Italian referendum in the aftermath of the Fukushima incident resulted in an emphatic rejection of nuclear power as a source of energy. In Germany, the Fukushima accident forced the government to close several nuclear power plants and established plans to shut down the remaining power plants in the country by 2022. Duffy (2012) concludes his analysis of the effect of this incident by stating that the Fukushima accident’s main impact on energy policy was to largely reinforce the existing negative perceptions and provoke negative decisive action in countries that were already skeptical about nuclear power.

Feldhoff (2014) concurs with Duffy (2012) by arguing that the Fukushima accident in March 2011 forced Japan to shatter its nuclear-dependent energy policy (p.87). In the immediate aftermath of this accident, Japan closed all its nuclear power plants either temporarily or permanently. Similar to Germany, Japan has maintained a secure energy supply that is characterized by a significantly decreased or even zero nuclear energy since Fukushima happened in March 2011. Japan and Germany have maintained approximately 30% of electricity produced from nuclear power plants. However, the aftermath of the Fukushima accident was characterized by a steep reduction in dependence on nuclear power though these countries had different ways of responding to the crisis.

The other social aspect that has hindered the growth of nuclear power industry is the emergence and growth of social movement organizations that campaign for the abolition of nuclear power, especially the development and growth of new nuclear power plant and facilities. These social movement organizations has emerged in the aftermath of the 2011 Fukushima nuclear accident that had devastating impacts on people’s lives and demonstrated the inherent dangers of nuclear power (Satoh et al., 2014, p.178). While these social movements have not contributed to the closure of nuclear power plants, they have been successful in changing people’s or the public’s opinion regarding nuclear power or energy. Bird (2014) noted that public opinion in Australia changed after Fukushima, from 42% of Australians in favor of nuclear power, as a means of reducing carbon emissions, to ranking it as 40% opposed a year later, and well behind three other options for addressing climate change through a shift in energy policy. The views of nuclear power have always been more negative after disasters.

Public perceptions can also be influenced by misinformation. An example would be with strontium-90 pollution. A self-styled activist group claimed that Sr.-90 levels in the environment are rising, and tied to an increase in cancers. Not only is this claim unfounded in the scientific literature, but 99% of Sr.-90 in the environment is there as the result of atmospheric nuclear weapons testing in the Cold War era. The dose has basically nothing to do with nuclear power and only consists of 0.3% of the average American’s exposure to background radiation. Nuclear power plant emissions of Sr.-90 are negligible (NEI, 2014). The Nuclear Energy Institute logs and routinely has to counter spurious and entirely unfounded claims about nuclear power that arise from nuclear power opponents. The impact of misinformation is not entirely known, but there are plenty of recent examples of how misinformation can inform opinion for large numbers of the public.

The doctrine by which disasters will shape opinions is not dissimilar to the idea of the shock doctrine, wherein a major shock allows for a change in public consciousness (Klein, 2007). People are generally oriented to the status quo until such time as the status quo becomes a problem. The need for change, therefore, is the main driver of the change. In the shock doctrine, politicians have an agenda ready, waiting for the shock so that they can implement it (Klein, 2007).

Where nuclear power is concerned, disasters do shape opinions, but disasters are not relating to nuclear energy can similarly be leveraged as an opportunity to reshape public opinion with respect to nuclear power. Disruptive emergencies can shift the fate of both politicians and public policies, because of the profound impact that emergencies have on the public (Boin, Hart & McConnell, 2009).

Ramana (2011) states that surveys from opinion polls have indicated that public support for nuclear energy has declined since the start of Fukushima crisis. The decline in support has not only occurred in Japan but in other nations as well. While people oppose nuclear energy for various reasons, the most predominant concern that contributes to decreased nuclear energy usage is the belief that it’s a risky technology. This opposition and resistance in turn hinders the efforts to site and develop new nuclear power reactors, which eventually leads to decreased usage of nuclear energy. Greenberg & Truelove (2011) support this view by arguing that concerns regarding accidents in nuclear power plants resulted in decreased support for nuclear energy. This decreased support in turn contributes to the decreased usage of nuclear energy at a time when global climate change indicates a need for its increased usage.

Political Dimension in Nuclear Energy

Nuclear power policy is in the political domain, and in many countries public sentiment affects the political domain. According to Jenkins-Smith et al. (2011), nuclear power policy is influenced by several factors including ideology, partisanship, government approval and environmental concern. Nivola (2004), states that political and economic factors have been crucial factors in the stuttered development and growth of the nuclear power industry. The troubles and frustrations in the nuclear power industry are regarded as more political than economical. Actually, politics has been regarded as the main source of exceptional troubles and frustrations in nuclear power than economic factors. For instance, the potential of nuclear power in the United States has been hindered by a hostile regulatory environment and unconventionally risk-averse public whose opinion regarding nuclear energy has been influenced by politics (Nivola, 2004). Political and legal institutions in the United States and other parts of the world have been largely uncooperative with regards to the further development of nuclear power plants and growth of nuclear energy. Political factors play a major role in nuclear power development because politics influences the regulatory framework of this industry.

Political Factors and Public Perception

Political factors have not only influenced public perceptions and attitudes but also affected policy development relating to the development and growth of nuclear power. So there are issues raised with respect to the perceptions that publics and governments have, and whether or not those perceptions are responsible for the decline of nuclear power. Two issues, in particular, are whether disasters such as Fukushima impact public policy and whether climate change and the need to transition away from fossil fuels is helping to change public perceptions about nuclear power, and its role in the power mix of a given nation.

Link between Public Perception and Policy-making

Slovic, Flynn & Layman (1991) studied the relationship between perceptions and policy-making with respect to nuclear power. The political environment seeks to weigh the trade-offs between the risks inherent in nuclear power and the benefits that it can convey to a society. One of the problems that the authors identified are that not only is there a distrust of nuclear power among many people but they largely do not understand the issues.

Wittneben (2012) studied the effects of Fukushima on policy-making in both Germany and the UK. One finding was that Germany had some regional elections in the weeks following Fukushima, while the disaster was ongoing, and the result was that the politicians had to address the issue of nuclear power, which remains a significant power source for Germany. There were no elections in the UK, so politicians had no incentive to address the issue of nuclear power. German response would also have been affected by the fact that Germany has a strong market for renewables, and that Germany has a long history of anti-nuclear sentiment. Germany is also seen as having a closer cultural similarity to Japan, that if a disaster could occur in Japan with its engineering prowess, the same could happen in Germany (Wittneben, 2012). The UK has less close cultural proximity, less anti-nuclear sentiment, and the UK is further behind the curve on renewables. Based on this examination, it would be predicted that UK response to Fukushima would be minimal, but that in Germany there could be considerably more response, and much of it may well be negative.

Wittneben’s study looked at the other factors and predicted that the reaction to Fukushima would be stronger in Germany, and more negative towards nuclear power, at least compared with the United Kingdom. The reality is that Germany ended up issuing temporary shutdowns on some nuclear facilities, and safety inspections of the others. For these same reasons, the UK did not shut down older facilities, and politicians were able to relatively easily reaffirm Britain’s use of nuclear power going forward.

Wittneben (2012) found that the German response to Fukushima was to shut down older reactors temporarily and perform safety evaluations on its facilities while the British response was a relatively brief affirmation of the current nuclear strategy, which included increasing capacity. Overall, these responses were predicted by the variables that Wittneben identified, and those variables might form an interesting framework for further analysis of public perceptions of nuclear power. It is clear from the evidence presented here, however, that disasters can affect public perceptions of nuclear power, and that public perceptions can affect public policy.

One of Wittneben’s points in the framework was the history of resistance to nuclear power, and another country that has been studied is Australia, which traditionally has had a high level of resistance to nuclear power. Schneider et al. (2013) did not list Australia among the nations with nuclear power, but it is also worth noting that Australia also has taken an anti-renewable stance for some reason in recent years, offering a rather conflicted stance with respect to energy policy, a nation with a strong coal lobby doubling down on fossil fuels.

Hymans (2015), states that Japanese nuclear policy change seemingly occurred after the Fukushima accident, which demonstrated several technical issues relating to nuclear power and energy. Schwarz & Cochran (2012) argue that decisions to decrease or stop the future use of nuclear power were not based on a rational economic analysis in the aftermath of the Fukushima disaster (p.691). Public perceptions and attitudes regarding nuclear power influenced political decision-making in Japan, Italy, and the United States among other nations. In their study, Schwarz & Cochran (2012) state that Italy abandoned plans to reactivate old nuclear energy power plants, Japan temporarily halted operations of nuclear power plants, and the United States tempered the push for a nuclear resurgence (p.691). These decisions were largely influenced by public perceptions about the nuclear power after the Fukushima incident.

Wolsink (2010) noted that the public does play a role in forming public policy. The role is twofold. First, the public has a need for infrastructure, and that need is part of what drives policy. Second, the public acts as a constraint on certain types of infrastructure. Devine-Wright (2005) noted that public acceptability is usually a significant barrier in relation to the development of renewable energy. This is mainly because acceptance often comes over time, especially after something has been implemented and there has been no harm come.

In the year 2011, the World Energy Outlook presented a reference of the business as usual scenario essentially based on the continuation of existing policies and trends (Schneider & Froggatt, 2014, p.72). The new policies that were put in place take into account the importance of nuclear energy and announced the commitment and the plans. Given the necessity and importance that is observed in the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, the major scenario of the company policy examine the changes that take place in the energy system that would be essential in the long-term in bringing the concentration of the carbon (IV) oxide equivalence in the atmosphere to below 450 parts per every million by the year 2050 (Schneider & Froggatt, 2014, p.72).

Handling Nuclear Waste

Another issue that has arisen in the course of researching the subject is the handling of nuclear waste. There are many challenges associated with handling nuclear waste, and these may be playing a role in the diminishing importance of nuclear power around the world. There are numerous studies that have been carried out to examine the handling of nuclear waste in relation to the development of this industry (Vandenbosch & Sussane, 2007; Ewing, Weber & Clinard, 1995; McPheeters et al., 1984; McKinley, 1987; Weber et al., 1998).

Vandenbosch and Susanne (2007) define waste burden as the negative effects of the waste products. It is referred to as the risk of radiation to the people and the environment and the difficulties that are involved in the failure to mitigate them. Some of the components of the nuclear waste vary in the level of radiation and the duration of radioactivity. The components of nuclear waste and the dangers that are involved in the nuclear process have long-term implications.

Following a revision of testing methodologies in the early 1980s, McPheeters et al., (1984) and Chapman and McKinley (1987), point out that burying nuclear waste is generally the safest method of handling the waste though even burial comes with many issues. In particular, there are issues with the use of certain materials in the burial process that need to be better understood. Giusti (2009) weighs in by arguing that waste typically needs to be treated to some extent prior to disposal, and major sites for treating waste exist in all major nuclear power producers.

However, when looking at waste disposal issues, an important starting point is to understand what types of waste are generated by nuclear power, and how much of such waste there actually is. Ewing, Weber and Clinard (1995) wrote about this, twenty years ago, discussing how much waste was around at the time, but also analyzing some of the chemical treatments needed to manage waste. Pyrochlore is used to neutralize plutonium, for example. However, the study of how chemicals like pyrochlore are affected by their exposure to nuclear waste is ongoing. Science has no definitive answers to some of the problems that are presented in the management of nuclear waste.

Weber et al. (1998) lend specific discussion to the issue of crystalline ceramics. Radiation affects the materials that are used to encase it. Given the very long half-life of some forms of nuclear waste, it is essential to understand how the waste will degrade the materials to ensure that the materials will survive the length of time needed.

In order to determine the best storage locations, different rock types have been critical examined. Neeway et al. (2015) modeled the effects of nuclear storage on the environment, in particular on Callovo-Oxfordian clay rock in France, where nuclear glass is stored. This is one of the emerging issues in the science of nuclear waste disposal, and it shows that the work is still ongoing, and until everything is understood that there will still be some risk associated with nuclear waste disposal.

The more that is known about nuclear waste disposal, the more regulation is going to be required. Even the German response to Fukushima involved more inspections, but with new knowledge comes new regulations and new protocols. Ojovan and Lee (2014) cover some of this in their book on immobilizing nuclear waste, and the challenges associated with the management of such waste. The regulatory environments with respect to nuclear power differ from country to country as well, but of course this also creates differential risk environments. The International Atomic Energy Association has set out basic guidelines for the handling of nuclear waste, but individual nations also have their own regulations (IAEA, 2009).

Risk-based regulation is common, but can be challenging to implement with respect to nuclear waste because while overall probabilities are very low, the negative outcomes are very high should they occur (Rothstein et al., 2006). This can make for normal risk-based analysis to be an ineffective means of setting policy no politician wants a disaster on their watch, even if the risk of such disaster is a minute. Politicians and civilians alike are not risk-neutral, but risk-averse.

India, as a nuclear power has sought to manage the safety of nuclear energy by reprocessing to recover plutonium and unused uranium, effectively diverting this waste for other purposes (Raj, Prasad & Bansal, 2006). Actinides are recycled back into fuel, and the Indian government has a program to research the “long-term evaluation of vitrified waste product under simulated repository conditions” (Raj, Prasad & Bansal, 2006). Vitrification is a process that is commonly used for immobilizing high-level nuclear waste by “combining it with borosilicate base glass” (Hand et al., 2005). Not all countries are using vitrification as a means of handling nuclear waste; this is something the more developed nations do. Many other nations simply store the waste in ceramics, and avoid reprocessing, but just aim for finding safe disposal sites. This approach is less sophisticated, but it also reflects that not every country with nuclear power utilizes the most up-to-date disposal practices (Lee, et al., 2006).

Emergence of Technical Issues

Fukushima has presented science with some other problems. One such problem that has been identified is that Fukushima created radioactive ash (Parajuli et al., 2013). There is work now being done to understand not only the composition of this ash but its effects on the environment as can blow around the world, so the effects may be distant from the disaster site. Further, there needs to be an understanding of how to mitigate such effects as might occur from things like radioactive ash. The reality is that each new paper seems to show more about what science does not know about nuclear power, rather than contributing certainty and solutions. This has to be disconcerting for those seeking to promote nuclear power to an increasingly skeptical populace and political base that must act with popular opinion in mind.

Tsumune et al. (2012) have contributed a study of the distribution of oceanic 137Cs from Fukushima. The authors used a model of predicting how this radioactive cesium would be distributed around the world by ocean currents, in order to better understand some of the risks that are associated with nuclear disasters. Understanding the nature of risk is important in policy-making. Thus, while is alarming that so many different issues have arisen from Fukushima, that disaster also provides science with many more opportunities to learn about the risks associated with nuclear power, something that should improve policy-making going forward.

Another emerging issue is the use of photocatalytic processes to degrade and mineralize materials under CV-radiation (Rekab et al., 2014). A lot of the waste from nuclear power generation is in the form of water, and it is necessary to pull contaminants out of the water in order for the water to be disposed of. There are different processes, and the current studies on the issue are focused on examining the effectiveness of the different techniques, again highlighting the emerging nature of this research, even some sixty years after nuclear power was first introduced by the Soviets.

Broczkowski, Noel and Shoesmith (2004) studied the effects of hydrogen on the corrosion of uranium dioxide under nuclear waste disposal conditions, noting that dissolved hydrogen can polarize the UO2 surface to reducing potentials. Underground repository conditions are a critical success factor for nuclear waste disposal, and there is significant work being done still to determine the best conditions, given corrosion and other variables. Archeological artifacts can inform researchers about the best methods of storing waste long-term, and predictive models are still a work in progress (Feron, Crusset & Gras, 2008).

The models will often make use of probabilistic risk assessment. One of the issues with this is that studies usually relate to “known” or anticipated risks. It will be critical to improve the value of such predictive models by building more complex models (Lee & Lee, 2006). Research continues on the storage of nuclear waste makes it quite clear that there is much that we do not know about this disposal, something that has to inform political opinion with respect to the reliance of nuclear power.

In an article about nuclear hot water, Alley and Alley (2013) point it out explicitly we do not know all that much more about nuclear waste disposal than we did fifty years ago. There is significant room to improve our knowledge of nuclear waste disposal, but the fact that so much remains a mystery definitely makes it more difficult to convey to the public, and to politicians, that nuclear power usage should be increased, especially as it competes for the climate change narrative with renewable sources of energy that do not have nearly the same amount of dangerous waste associated with them.

Economic Dimension in Nuclear Energy

In the past few decades, the circumstances of nuclear energy have been extremely unfavorable as compared to conditions that prevailed prior to the 1970s energy crisis. In the United States, these unfavorable conditions have not only been brought by political obstacles but also due to inappropriate basic economic considerations. The nuclear power industry has lacked adequate economic support and considerations to propel the development of nuclear energy. Actually, the existing economic considerations related to this industry have contributed to several obstacles in the construction of new nuclear power plants.

Moreover, the economic realities of the current energy sector demonstrate that this industry is largely cost competitive. In essence, gas and coal-generated power have been cost competitive and increasingly preferred than nuclear energy (Nivola, 2004). The cost competitive nature of the energy sector, which has favored alternative energy sources, has contributed to several difficulties in the development and growth of nuclear power industry.

It is also evident that nuclear power plants take an exceptionally long time to construct and eventually costs more than it should to develop safely according to many financial analysts (Nivola, 2004). There have been several challenges in efforts to lessen the overall completion time and lower the costs of construction. Financial analysts have argued that lessening the completion time of constructing a nuclear power plant and reducing development costs by a quarter would still not enhance the competitiveness of nuclear energy relative to coal and other sources of energy.

The opportunity presented by the current situation is to determine what the factors are that are constraining the growth of the nuclear power industry. Once these factors are understood, policymakers can have a better sense of how to work around these challenges. There remain a lot of compelling arguments in favor of nuclear power, for its efficiency, for its ability to mitigate the impacts of climate change and even for its safety. In order to restore growth to the industry, and the promise of atomic energy, in general, the issues that have befallen nuclear power in recent years will need to be better understood.

Nuclear Power and Climate Change

There are only five energy generation methods that are capable of providing base load electricity while meeting the greenhouse gas emissions guidelines of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), and Generation III nuclear fission is among them (Nicholson, Beigler & Brook, 2011). Sailor et al. (2000) argue that nuclear energy is the only viable option, based on their calculations. The authors note that nuclear power can bring about the target greenhouse gas emission reductions faster than any other form of energy generation, which puts nuclear power at the center of the debate with respect to reducing carbon output (IAEA, 2014).

Nuclear power is, the authors conclude, the best to replace fossil fuels, but that at present carbon remains underpriced, something that makes things like pulverized fuel coal a cheaper alternative. Until carbon pricing is better aligned with its costs to the environment, nations will be hesitant to switch, even to nuclear (Nicholson et al., 2011). Still, if nuclear is the only option, however, that might not appeal to people, the responsible thing to do is to change people’s attitudes about nuclear power and to seek to implement more nuclear power, at a time when the world is actually decreasing its usage of nuclear power.

Becker et al. (2008) concurs with this argument by stating that nuclear energy is technologically feasible, carbon-free, economical, and scalable. Therefore, nuclear energy should be utilized as a sustainable energy source that will help deal with existing challenges relating to climate change throughout the world. These authors argue that criticisms that are currently associated with nuclear energy are either exaggerated or solvable as evidenced in experience over decades. These criticisms that have contributed to decreased usage of nuclear energy include nuclear reactor safety, proliferation of nuclear materials that could be used in development of nuclear weapons, environmental wastes of nuclear power, and the costs of nuclear energy as compared to other forms of energy. These authors conclude that nuclear energy should be utilized as a sustainable energy source to deal with climate change since the criticisms are insignificant when compared to gaps in energy supply or the dangers of emissions of greenhouse gases.

In support of this view, the economics of using nuclear power as a climate change mitigation policy are favorable. The early closing of Fukushima is estimated to cause cumulative global GDP losses of 0.7% by 2020, as that energy will be replaced by carbon. The current trend of decreasing nuclear capability, therefore, is a blow to efforts to mitigate climate change and for the affected countries to meet their carbon emissions reduction guidelines going forward (Bauer, Brecha & Luderer, 2012). Winslow (2011) seemingly concurs by arguing that nuclear power plays a major role in mitigating climate change with regards to achieving desired levels of greenhouse gases emissions by 2050. In her study, Winslow (2011) argues that nuclear power’s role in mitigating climate change emanates from the fact that it’s clean, sustainable, and reliable. Moreover, this energy source is increasingly important given the constraints of renewable energy sources. Therefore, there is need for the world to embrace nuclear energy as a clean, sustainable source of energy to help mitigate climate change.

Bird’s study (2014) showed that in Australia, nuclear power as a solution to climate change went from being a favorable option pre-Fukushima to an unfavorable option post-Fukushima. This illustrates that under normal circumstances when there are no disasters, nuclear power is viewed as a method of reducing carbon emissions while retaining our energy capacity. The fact that the views about nuclear energy were strong before Fukushima shows that this is essentially a default position, but that when people are reminded of the risks associated with nuclear energy, they turn to other ways of addressing climate change. Nuclear power must compete, in the mindset of the public, with renewable energy sources, in terms of the climate change debate.

Skea, Lechtenbohmer and Asuka (2013) studied the response to nuclear power as a climate change solution in the UK, Germany and Japan, after Fukushima. The authors note that in all three countries, citizens and policymakers alike had seen nuclear power as a viable strategy for mitigating carbon emissions and managing climate change. After Fukushima, the UK has maintained its pro-nuclear stance, while Germany is looking to exit nuclear power, and Japan is also going to phase out its nuclear power as well. There are some similarities between those countries, as Wittneben (2012) noted, but it should be noted that they are in very different places with respect to their adoption of renewable energy sources.

Germany is far along, and can probably better envision a smooth transition to solar and other renewable energy forms (Wittneben, 2012). Japan may be less further along in its adoption of renewables, but the decision to phase out nuclear power there stems from strong public concern about Fukushima, combined with historically negative views about nuclear power, and the evident risk that Fukushima presents to Tokyo, which houses around a quarter of all Japanese people (Schwarz & Cochran, 2012). The threat to Tokyo can be expected to have a significant impact on public perception of nuclear energy, in particular with respect to how nuclear energy can be used as part of a climate change mitigation strategy.

While politicians in the UK have taken a generally favorable view of nuclear power, the British public is less enthusiastic. Pidgeon, Lorenzoni & Poortinga (2008) state that the British public has generally unfavorable views about nuclear power as reflected in a survey that was carried out in 2007. These views are somewhat conditional, especially when nuclear power is framed as a means of mitigating global climate change.

Faced with that argument, the British public was found to be slightly more willing to accept nuclear power, though the authors note that most respondents did not have a sophisticated understanding of the risk-risk analysis on which to base their opinions (Pidgeon, Lorenzoni & Poortinga, 2008). There are very few Britons who unconditionally accept nuclear power as a means of mitigating climate change and carbon emissions, and attitudes do not appear to be shifting particularly quickly, based on surveys conducted over the years (Corner, et al., 2011; Poortinga, Pidgeon & Lorenzoni, 2006).

There is the possibility, however, that information campaigns can reframe nuclear power. In particular, the fear of climate change is growing, and at a rate faster than the fear of nuclear energy. While public perception of nuclear power is not especially safe at the moment, it may be that in the near future the fear of climate change is greater than the fear of nuclear energy, and at that point there may be a shift in public sentiment with respect to nuclear energy (Bickerstaff et al., 2011), something that is also predicted in Wolsink’s (2010) discussion of how public fears can place constraints on infrastructure investment.

In countries that are major fossil fuel economies, the discussion about climate change tends to be one of willful ignorance, unfortunately. Oh, Pang and Chua (2010) conducted a study in Malaysia that found only a small movement towards green power, and basically zero appetite for nuclear power, even though climate change affects everybody. Another consideration within this subject is that there is carbon emissions associated with nuclear power, something that is often ignored when nuclear power is presented as a climate change mitigator. The carbon output of nuclear power, especially when the life cycle approach is taken, is not insignificant, and there are unknown variables (Fthenakis & Kim, 2007). In the UK, people have become more accepting of wind power, but that aesthetics, and not a logical analysis of energy policy alternatives, is the driver of public perceptions about wind power (Warren et al., 2005).

Indeed, the visuals and type of landscape seem to be almost the entire driving factor in most people’s decision-making on the issue of wind power (Wolsink, 2007). This could mean that people are less willing to accept nuclear power if they can see the cooling towers, which would put the perception of risk towards a more immediate perception. It has also been found that higher levels of citizen participation in determining energy policy will bring about lower levels of resistance, many citizens, in particular, want to understand how a proposed project will benefit their community (Rogers et al., 2008). It is believed that lessons learned from wind power are roughly applicable to nuclear power though certainly wind power does not have the same degree of baggage as nuclear, which was a boogeyman for many people who grew up during the Cold War and the nuclear testing era.

One of the issues that arise is that there is a gap in concern about climate change and fear of nuclear power. For example, Lorenzoni and Pidgeon (2006) found that while many people in the U.S. and the UK are concerned about climate change, this concern tends to be secondary in their everyday lives. The reality is that this guides and informs their opinions about climate change solutions. There is simply no sense of urgency, and nor will there be until climate change has directly affected their lives. Maybe even then not, if recent U.S. experience says anything. But changing attitudes is simply the first step; the next step is to change behaviors. For voters in either of these countries, it appears that for them to be more welcoming of nuclear power they would have to be more concerned about climate change, as the authors seem to indicate that there is a link between these things.

Indeed, there is a link between physical vulnerability and willingness to accept alternatives to carbon. It has been found that the more people become physically vulnerable to the effects of climate change, the more they are willing to accept other alternatives, even alternatives that they had previously considered palatable (Brody, et al., 2008). There is an element of immediacy that matters to people. So someone who otherwise does not accept the idea of nuclear power may be swayed by a carbon-related or climate-change related disaster. This is the same conceptually as someone changing their mind about nuclear power in the wake of Fukushima or some other nuclear disaster. The way that people conceptualize their policy options is definitely dependent on the stability or lack thereof in their immediate circumstances (Brody et al., 2008).

Some opposition to nuclear power, however, is based on unfounded concepts and ones that make no sense. One opposition argumentative text, for example, argues about high capital costs, rising uranium costs, and other irrelevancies, what matters is how these costs compare with the costs associated with carbon (Sovacool & Cooper, 2008). Safety issues and national security issues and reactors are targeted for attack is perhaps more meritorious points of opposition. Such sources highlight the need for discourse on nuclear power in the public sphere to be driven by scientists.

Furthermore, there are people who object specifically to nuclear power being a factor in green energy solutions. Though it has been demonstrated to be the most effective means of mitigating climate change, nuclear power is simply not viewed either as “green” or as renewable by many (Wustenhagen & Bilharz, 2006), which may be a causal factor for why publics in many countries do not necessarily view nuclear power as an acceptable climate change solution, even though the evidence says that it is.

American perceptions of climate change have followed this somewhat predictable trend. Public support for policies to deal with climate change “will be greatly influenced by public perceptions of the risks and dangers posed by climate change” (Leiserowitz, 2005). In particular, when the risk is abstract, it is easier to dismiss but likewise when the response to the risk is also viewed in the abstract, people are more likely to accept it. The author here found that climate change risk is generally perceived to affect other people — geographically and temporally distant people — and that Americans generally do not care about those people. The study did not say whether these findings could apply to other cultures though behavior says they probably can.

There is, in fact, little voluntary work done to mitigate the effects of climate change. Awareness of climate change is high, but it is unusual for people to directly take action to address climate change, 43% of people reduced energy usage at home and 39% reduced gasoline consumption in response to concerns about climate change (Semenza, et al. 2008), but the authors did not examine the role that acceptable nuclear power might play in fighting climate change and what the perception of such a policy might really be.

Overall, there has been a considerable amount of research done on all four of these topics. This interdisciplinary approach will serve to best explain some of the phenomena that surround nuclear power, the disposal of nuclear waste, and the public perceptions of nuclear power. By examining this research, it should be possible to derive some critical insight as to the role that nuclear power can and will play in the post-carbon energy future.

Conceptual Framework

The researcher has identified a minimum of 20 studies that will be analyzed based on their relevance to the research question and hypotheses. These studies will comprise published and contextual articles addressing the issue of nuclear power, especially with regards to its decreased usage despite its potential to help reduce climate change. The 20 studies to be reviewed were identified through the robust search of the topic area, which is an important process for this research design.

Notably, the researcher will have the preference of journal articles over other types of articles because of the likelihood of published and contextual articles to meet all requirements for the research process. The preference of journal articles over other types of articles is also fueled by the fact that they seem to be credible as compared to other kinds of articles. Moreover, the researcher will utilize journal articles published in English as previously mentioned.

The most suitable methodology for analyzing these published and contextual articles for this study is content analysis. Content analysis research methodologies usually involve the use of a systematic analysis of the contents of gathered data and inductive strategies geared towards the creation of patterns and themes (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005). Through this method, themes and patterns relating to the phenomenon under investigation will be derived from comparing, contrasting, and categorizing the content of qualitative data obtained regarding the research problem. This research design is appropriate for the study because existing knowledge and literature about the use of nuclear energy is obtained from various studies and surveys that are documented in peer-reviewed journal articles.

This research design has been developed on the basis that the research question is explanatory in nature since it focuses on the why question. In this case, the research question is seemingly explanatory since the researcher will focus on examining why nuclear energy has declined in its significance in the global energy mix despite being a suitable alternative for dealing with the problem of global climate change. Therefore, the researcher will develop casual explanations to argue different phenomena related to the issue (New York University, n.d.). The casual explanations will act at the basis for identifying the various issues relating to nuclear energy and its decline in the global energy mix.

Based on the propositions for this study, the research question is “What is contributing to the decreased use of Nuclear Energy despite its potential to solve climate change?” Given the broad nature of the research question, sustainability aspects or sustainability considerations will be used as the basis of examining the phenomenon of decreased nuclear energy usage and probable ways of reversing this trend. In essence, the significance of nuclear energy relative to its decreased usage will be based on whether this energy source is sustainable and its environmental impacts. During the process of identifying relevant studies, the researcher will look for journal articles and contextual studies that present words or phrases that equate to sustainability. Some of the words or phrases that equate to sustainability that will be used include

Decreased support for nuclear energy.

Decreased reliance on nuclear energy.

Decreased construction of nuclear power plants.

Is nuclear energy sustainable?

Nuclear energy limitations as a sustainable energy source.

Minimal deployment of nuclear energy.

Can nuclear energy provide clean energy in the long-term?

Environmental impacts of nuclear energy generation.

Is nuclear energy clean and safe?

Nuclear energy consumption.

When conducting the study, the researcher will look for these “decreasing” words and phrases in the secondary data. This process will be followed by analysis of the results of looking for the words and phrases in the secondary data. The content analysis process for this study of the phenomenon of decreased nuclear energy usage will be based on the methodology of Klaus Krippendorff, which involves making specific inferences from studies through replicable and valid method. By the end of the study, the researcher will synthesize these independent studies and provide insights on what contributes to decreased nuclear energy usage.

What is contributing to the decreased use of Nuclear Energy despite its potential to solve climate change?

Reasons

1. Public perception, which is largely influenced by disasters

2. Political

decision-making, which is driven by public perceptions

3. Unresolved technical issues that influence nuclear energy policy

4. Nuclear energy is not considered as a viable solution t

o the problem of climate change

Contextual Factors

Decreased support for nuclear energy.

Decreased reliance on nuclear energy.

Decreased construction of nuclear power plants.

Is nuclear energy sustainable?

Nuclear energy limitations as a sustainable energy source.

Minimal deployment of nuclear energy.

Can nuclear energy provide clean energy in the long-term?

Environmental impacts of nuclear energy generation.

Is nuclear energy clean and safe?

Nuclear energy consumption.

obust Literature Research on the Topic Area

1. Published Articles

2. Contextual Articles

Research Methodology

Content analysis technique Conceptual Framework Diagram

Summary of Chapter 2

Nuclear power is the splitting of atoms (fission) in order to create power. The fissile material is typically an enriched form of uranium (Josephson, 2000, p.2). Nuclear energy was first harnessed for power in 1954, at the Obninsk scientific city some 110km outside of Moscow (Josephson, 2000, p.2). At the time, nuclear power was viewed as the energy of the future. Unharnessing the power of the atom, it was thought, was provided a stable, reliable source of energy for the future. Even at the time, it was known that fossil fuels were not going to sustainable as an energy source. The use of atomic weapons at the end of the Second World War highlighted the value of harnessing the atom nuclear energy was essential in war, and to meet civilian energy needs. However, nuclear power currently provides for roughly 10% of the world’s energy needs (Schneider et al., 2013).

The decline in the development and growth of nuclear power industry can be attributed to several dimensions, particularly social, political, and economic factors. These factors impact the industry through shaping public perception and political decision-making on nuclear energy (Wolsink, 2007). The impact of these dimensions on nuclear power is evident through various propositions, especially in relation to the aftermath of incidents or accidents in this industry.

Numerous studies exist in current literature regarding nuclear energy in terms of its development and decline in the past few years. These studies demonstrate that nuclear power has experienced a tremendous decline in the recent past despite showing significant promise in the early years of its initial discovery and use. The studies also highlight some of the major political, social, and economic dimensions relating to nuclear power industries and nuclear energy. Political and economic factors have been crucial factors in the stuttered development and growth of the nuclear power industry. Political and economic factors have been the major causes of troubles and frustrations relating to the growth of nuclear energy across the globe (Wittneben, 2012). These factors have not only influenced public perceptions and attitudes but also affected policy development relating to the development and growth of nuclear power. Social dimensions relating to the growth of nuclear power have largely been centered on public opinions about nuclear power that have been shaped by accidents that have taken place in the nuclear power industry such as the Chernobyl incident and Fukushima accident (Schwarz & Cochran, 2012).

Some of the major political, social, and economic factors identified in current literature regarding nuclear energy in relation to climate change include the fact that public perception is strongly linked to disasters in nuclear power plants. Generally, public opinion and attitudes regarding nuclear power plants seemingly change in the aftermath of a disaster in nuclear power plants such as Chernobyl and Fukushima (Schwarz & Cochran, 2012).

These perceptions are greatly influenced by the information people receive, especially after the accidents. Secondly, public perception plays a major role in policy making since policymakers use public opinion as the basis for developing and enacting policies (Wolsink, 2007). For instance, countries like Japan, Italy, Germany, and the United States responded to accidents in nuclear power plants through a review of existing policies on nuclear energy and temporal and/or permanent closure of nuclear power plants or reduction of nuclear power reactors (Wittneben, 2012).

Handling nuclear waste and technical issues are crucial factors in the development of energy policies, especially those that directly relate to nuclear power. It seems that policymakers in the energy sector develop new initiatives for handling nuclear waste and addressing some technical issues in attempts to promote the safety of nuclear power plants and overall consideration of nuclear energy as an alternative source of energy that could help handle global climate change.

Nuclear energy is a suitable alternative source of energy to help address the problem of global climate change since it does not entail the burning of fossil fuels that escalate this problem. There is overwhelming scientific evidence and literature that demonstrate the potential suitability and effectiveness of nuclear energy as a solution to the problem of global climate change. However, despite the existing evidence in the current literature, nuclear energy is not currently used to address this problem given its decline in the recent past.

The researcher has identified a minimum of 20 studies comprising published and contextual articles that will be analyzed based on their relevance to the research question. The researcher will have a preference of journal articles over other types of articles because of the likelihood of published and contextual journal articles to meet all requirements for the research process and study. The research question for this study is “What is contributing to the decreased use of Nuclear Energy despite its potential to solve climate change?”

The next chapter provides a discussion regarding the research design and methodology that will be used in this study. In this case, the researcher examines research traditions and provides a discussion regarding the research questions and hypotheses. The other elements discussed in Chapter 3 include the research design, validity of the research, reliability of this study, and ethical issues in the research.

Chapter Three: Methodology

Research Traditions

There are a number of different research traditions that could be used to understand a subject as broad as nuclear power. Generally, the wide nature of this issue implies that the research methodology utilized, measurements undertaken, and the kinds of people examined differ depending on the study while the topic is the same. Ultimately, the most appropriate method depends on a number of different variables in the phenomenon under investigation.

The availability of hard data will determine whether quantitative methods can be used. What data is available is dependent on the research question itself. In the case of this project, the research question focuses on the future of nuclear power. Nuclear power decisions are made most often at the political level, as a matter of national energy policy, rather than the scientific level. In terms of the science, there is little doubt that nuclear power can be used, albeit with some fairly significant risks (Alic, 2012).

Nuclear power has remained an increasingly controversial issue for a long period of time. The controversy has largely been centered on whether using this type of power as an energy source would be beneficial or harmful to the society and environment. Even though nuclear power is associated with some harmful effects that could be devastating to the environment, there are significant benefits attributed to using it as an energy source.

The controversial nature of this topic implies that a suitable methodology has to be selected for this study in order to generate accurate findings and conclusions. Actually, this research issue entails examining the decreasing words relating to the phenomenon of nuclear energy usage in order to understand the contributing factors in the decline of nuclear energy usage despite its potential to address climate change. The researcher’s ability to effectively examine these issues and develop accurate conclusions for future studies and implementation is directly affected by the research methodology.

Moreover, the broad nature of the research issue implies that the researcher must careful consider the various research methodologies and approaches before selecting a suitable one. In light of these factors and considerations, the qualitative research methodology would be the most appropriate. Qualitative research uses a technique through which data obtained from field and historical comparative research are evaluated using procedures for interpreting cases and contexts (Neuman, 2003). This process is carried out in order to define concepts and identify links between social interactions and their respective meanings. Since the nature of the research problem usually determines research design, the most appropriate methodology for this study is qualitative research.

Given that this study is not based on technical sciences but on social science, qualitative research will be vital. Actually, qualitative research has a longstanding history of providing significant insights regarding social structures, cultures, and behaviors. Moreover, qualitative methods help in development and evaluation of social policy, which makes them effective in social research (Lewis & Ritchie, 2003, p.25).

As previously mentioned, nuclear power is a broad topic that has attracted significant attention in the recent past, which has contributed to numerous research and studies on this issue. In essence, the broad nature of the study not only contributes to use of different research traditions but also generate various kinds of studies. The findings of the numerous existing studies on the issue of nuclear power are relatively fragile as research on the topic is increasing at an astounding rate, particularly because of increased climate change in the recent past. Research findings of existing studies on the issue of nuclear power are fragile since they are characterized by irregularities across several factors such as contexts and classes of subjects.

For this study, the research will not limit the selection to studies that primarily focuses on the potential use of nuclear energy as a solution to the problem of global climate change. The researcher will examine published and contextual articles on the growth and development of nuclear energy facilities across the globe, factors affecting this growth and development, measures undertaken by several countries towards promoting the growth of this industry.

The other aspect of research tradition is multi-disciplinary study. While the multi-disciplinary study does not always lend itself to the narrow focus of academic journals, the real world is often multidisciplinary. Actually, the multidisciplinary study is increasingly being recognized as a necessary component for answering complex questions, resolving multifaceted problems, and obtaining a logical understanding of complex issues that cannot be resolved sufficiently or addressed comprehensively by any single discipline (“Defining Interdisciplinary Studies,” nod.). There is a time and place for laboratory questions that exclude real world factors in order to isolate variables, but this is not the time.

Research about nuclear power and its role in our energy future is by its nature multidisciplinary as it lies at the intersection of nuclear science, sociology, psychology and political science. Journals from all of these disciplines have contributed to this study. There is not just one variable, acting independently, that governs this issue. It is indeed many variables, and they sometimes work together to influence opinions and actions (Bauer, Brecha & Luderer, 2012, p.16807).

Research Question

The research question to be explored in the study is, “What is contributing to the decreased use of Nuclear Energy despite its potential to solve climate change?” This research question is exploratory in nature given that the researcher seeks to examine why nuclear energy has declined in its significance in the global energy mix despite being a suitable alternative for dealing with the problem of global climate change. Given the exploratory nature of the research question, a qualitative study will be appropriate since it will enable the researcher to develop casual explanations of various phenomena relating to the topic.

Given that the researcher’s current concentration is environmental and social sustainability, sustainability aspects or sustainability considerations will be used as the basis of examining the phenomenon of decreased nuclear energy usage and probable ways of reversing this trend. In essence, the significance of nuclear energy relative to its decreased usage will be based on whether this energy source is sustainable and its environmental impacts. This implies that examining contributing reasons to the decline of nuclear energy usage when it should be increasing will be based on concepts and considerations in the field of environmental and social sustainability.

Research Propositions

In order to conduct this study, the researcher has made several propositions that will be utilized in the research process. The five propositions that will guide this research process are derived from the different phenomena relating to the issue of nuclear energy with regards to its development and usage as an energy source. Moreover, the researcher has also made several propositions based on the potential of nuclear energy to mitigate climate changes and its associated environment impacts. These propositions have been developed based on the extensive literature review that was carried out in chapter 2 of this proposal. In essence, the researcher has utilized existing literature on this topic to identify different phenomena relating to the decreased usage of nuclear energy and develop various propositions for the research.

One of the propositions for this study is that nuclear energy is a sustainable source of energy that meet existing energy needs across the globe while ensuring or enhancing environmental stability. This proposition emerges from the fact that current energy sources contribute to numerous environmental impacts that lead to global warming since they are characterized by increased emissions of greenhouse gases into the Earth’s atmosphere. Despite the decreased usage of nuclear energy, existing studies indicate that it’s a sustainable energy source with capability of addressing the problem of global climate change since it has minimal environmental impacts. Therefore, the study is guided by the proposition that nuclear energy is a sustainable source of energy with capability to meet existing energy needs throughout the world while enhancing environmental stability or ensuring sustainability.

Research Design

A qualitative content analysis will be utilized in this research since it’s the most suitable method for exploring historical data. Studies that are conducted using content analysis methodology focus on identifying themes through investigating the content of a broad range of texts. Through this technique of collecting and analyzing the content of the text, the researcher will quantify and tally the existence of the chosen concept for investigation (Leedy & Omrod, 2005). The use of a qualitative content analysis for the study is also influenced by the fact that qualitative research methodologies focus on integrating the perspectives of many data providers within a particular context while searching for developing themes in the text.

The researcher will develop casual explanations to argue different phenomena related to the issue because of the exploratory nature of the research question (New York University, n.d.). The casual explanations will act at the basis for identifying the various issues relating to nuclear energy and its decline in the global energy mix. Moreover, these casual explanations will provide insights regarding the link between these issues and the increasing reluctance to use nuclear power as an alternative source of energy that will help deal with global climate change.

The research design is qualitative content analysis, which will be based on constant comparison, which is a common qualitative research technique. The study will primarily depend on individual peer-reviewed articles, which provide an opportunity to focus research attention. The use of constant comparison in this study is attributable to the fact that this method allows interpretations of patterns and themes in the data. In this case, the unit of comparison is the terms used in the textual search.

The qualitative content analysis for this study will utilize secondary data explored peer-reviewed literature that was published in the United Kingdom and the United States between 2007 and 2015. Since the values and beliefs of the authors of peer-reviewed journal articles were taken into consideration, a qualitative research methodology was suitable for this research (Krippendorff, 2004). Through these journal articles, the researcher hope to identify emerging themes regarding the decreased usage of nuclear energy, especially in relation to development of nuclear power plants and use of nuclear power as an energy source for current energy needs. The content analysis of these articles is guided by the research question. As a result, this research design will provide the basis for systematic investigation of the contents of obtained data on the phenomenon and inductive techniques focusing on creating patterns or themes. This implies that the qualitative data analysis will help create patterns and themes from the study based on the collected data.

According to Charmaz (2006), the core analytical technique in content analysis is constant comparison, which is also a common qualitative research framework. Since the unit of data collection for this study will be individual peer-reviewed and contextual articles, textual search words and terms will be the unit of comparison. Through this process, the researcher will focus research attention and effectively integrate findings of several studies on the phenomenon under investigation.

Population and Sample

Creswell (2002), states that the population of a study is the total entity through which the research seeks a particular kind of knowledge. This qualitative content analysis will focus on peer-reviewed journal articles and contextual articles that examine the phenomenon of decreased nuclear energy usage and its related phenomena. Therefore, the strategy to be utilized in this research process is an investigation of 8 years of literature that were published in the UK and U.S. between 2007 and 2015. These sources of data for the research will be full-text journal articles, peer-reviewed journals, and historical articles obtained from Google search as well as electronic databases like EBSCO, ProQuest and Emerald Insights. These studies will be identified through a search of keyword phrases and satisfaction of inclusion criteria.

The strategy for determining sampling size for studies to be included in this research will focus on an initial search in the search engine and electronic databases using decreasing words that the researcher identified for this qualitative research. These words and phrases for determining the sampling size are equal to sustainability because of the use of sustainability concepts and considerations for the research process. In essence, during the process of identifying relevant studies, the researcher will look for journal articles and contextual studies that present words or phrases that equate to sustainability. Some of the words or phrases that equate to sustainability that will be used include

Decreased support for nuclear energy.

Decreased reliance on nuclear energy.

Decreased construction of nuclear power plants.

Is nuclear energy sustainable?

Nuclear energy limitations as a sustainable energy source.

Minimal deployment of nuclear energy.

Can nuclear energy provide clean energy in the long-term?

Environmental impacts of nuclear energy generation.

Is nuclear energy clean and safe?

Nuclear energy consumption.

Through the use of these “decreasing” words or phrases relating to the phenomenon under investigation, the researcher hopes to identify a huge number of peer-reviewed, full-text journal, and historical studies relating to the topic. The researcher will then utilize an equal sampling distribution across the various research propositions to help in the content analysis. The study sampling size for this research will be established through a presented process i.e. a disparity of relevance sampling for content analysis. Moreover, the researcher will conduct a further analysis of the initial articles through clustering of keyword phrases from context units as suggested by Krippendorff (2004). This will help in focusing the direction of the research by limiting the number of articles to be included within a population of relevant journal and contextual articles.

With regards to the inclusion criteria for studies to be utilized in the content analysis, the researcher will utilize restricted inclusion criteria since liberal criteria will hinder the ability of the researcher to identify relevant contextual and journal articles. The researcher will group the identified studies based and the various aspects of the restricted inclusion criteria. Once these studies are grouped, the researcher will compare their findings in relation to the specific propositions to deduce combinable results that provide significant information on the topic under evaluation. The findings of individual studies will be integrated on the basis of their relevance to the specific category where they are grouped. The integration will entail coding the various attributes of the study using NVIVo software as demonstrated later in this chapter.

Some of the major aspects in the inclusion criteria include: the article is from Google search engine and the previously mentioned electronic databases, the year of publication i.e. between 2007 and 2015, alignment with research question and decreasing words, publication within the UK and U.S., and relevant to phenomenon under investigation. Through the criteria, the inclusion of an article in this study is its focus on the research question or phenomenon under investigation as well as incorporation of phrases that equate to sustainability.

Sampling Procedure

The major steps in the sampling process include, first, the researcher will examine nuclear energy across the globe in light of its development and growth in the recent past. This will be followed by narrowing the research to the decline of nuclear energy in relation to its share in the global energy mix. This will be the basis for developing the study objectives, relevant subgroups or contextual factors, and suitable research methodologies and techniques for examining the issue. These will be developed based on findings of issues that have seemingly played a role in the decline of nuclear energy in the global energy mix at a time when it should be increasing given its likelihood to act as a solution to the problem of global climate change. The researcher will develop a proposal based on the findings of evaluation on issues contributing to the decline of nuclear power in the global energy mix while its share should be increasing.

Secondly, the researcher will adopt a more specific approach towards formulating the research problem to be addressed, especially because of the broad nature of the topic or issue of nuclear power. As previously mentioned, the specific approach for formulating the research problem is developed based on findings on the growth and development of nuclear energy across the globe. In this case, the share of nuclear power in the global energy mix will be evaluated and compared with the share of other sources of energy that have largely contributed to the problem of global climate change through emissions of greenhouse gasses. The comparison will then lead to examining factors that have contributed to its decline though it can help address climate change.

Third, the researcher will examine this issue with a view of demonstrating how the use of nuclear power as an energy source can be beneficial in efforts to lessen global warming and climate change. The adoption of a more specific study question, purpose, and aim would help in locating relevant studies that will be utilized in the content analysis. This implies that formulating the research problem or issue to be addressed through a more specific approach helps in easy identification of relevant material for use in the review or analytic procedure.

These sampling processes will be utilized because the major focus and interest of qualitative studies is to examine patterns and trends through establishing meaning and themes of phenomena relating to the issue under investigation (Creswell, 2002). The sampling plan for this research will entail identifying a population of relevant historical, full-text, and peer-reviewed journal articles (Krippendorff, 2004). The researcher will utilize both primary and secondary data, which will help in providing richness and accuracy of necessary data for drawing inferences from text documents.

Instrumentation

This study will utilize a mixture of manual and electronic (computer-aided) coding, which has become a common characteristic of recent content analysis researches. A manual comparison of keyword search results to concordance concepts helps in dealing with probable inaccurate matches between concordance terms and computer search keywords (Duriau, Reger & Pfarrer, 2007). On the other hand, the use of computer-aided search will help ensure reliability in identifying every occurrence of the search keyword.

Once the relevant articles for the study are identified, the researcher will conduct conceptual and relational analysis of these articles. The conceptual and relational analysis of the articles will help in providing saturation of themes or patterns identified in the research process. Depending on the relevant constructs of the research, a further sampling of these relevant articles may be carried out to help in completing saturation of a pattern or theme (Glaser, 1998). These relevant articles will also be subjected to continuous data comparisons between them in order to establish the saturated emergence of patterns and themes relating to the phenomenon under investigation.

Validity

The internal and external validity of this study is crucial in order to generate accurate and reliable findings. Therefore, the researcher will utilize several methods to ensure the internal and external validity of the study. First, the researcher will pose several questions when conducting constant comparisons in order to explore linkages between propositions and their features. The process of questioning during constant comparisons will help focus the direction of the research and critically examine emerging concepts or patterns (Glaser, 1998).

Secondly, the researcher will conduct concept and relationship evaluation, which helps in validation of data through comparing it with developing themes and patterns (Creswell, 2002). In this case, process validation through comparison of results to current theory and principles in existing literature will be conducted upon establishment of a pattern or theme. The other aspect of ensuring internal and external validity of this study will be adhering to the intrinsic steps of a qualitative research since these steps provide credibility while ensuring validity.

Reliability

One of the steps that will be utilized to ensure the reliability of the findings of this study is adhering to the intrinsic steps of a qualitative content analysis. This is primarily because these intrinsic steps usually lend credibility and enhances the likelihood of generating accurate results. In essence, the researcher will focus on providing accurate results or findings that are reliable through adhering to the intrinsic steps of the qualitative content analysis technique.

Secondly, the researcher will ensure that all articles utilized in the study are appropriate for the research process. In this case, all articles must meet various aspects of the inclusion criteria as well as be relevant to the phenomenon under investigation. Since the research topic is broad and exploratory in nature, the researcher will ensure that identified articles are relevant to the research question.

Third, the combination of manual and computer-aided coding during sampling will help ensure reliability. This is primarily because each of these methods deals with concerns of the other method and helps enhance the likelihood of generating accurate research findings or results as previously discussed. However, the researcher will ensure that the combination is carried out in a proper and effective manner that aide the research processes for the study.

Data Collection

The source data for this qualitative content analysis of the phenomenon of decreased usage of nuclear energy will be full-text journal, peer-reviewed journal, and historical articles from Google search engine and three online databases i.e. EBSCOHost, ProQuest, and Emerald Insight. “Decreasing” words or phrases that equate to sustainability will be the search keywords. Through these words or phrases, an article will be selected based on its alignment with the research question and its focus on the phenomenon under investigation.

According to Krippendorff (2004), the first step in content analysis data collection is bridging the gap between articles included in the research and analyzable representation of the articles. Based on this fact, the researcher will identify concordance terms and keywords that will be utilized in the mixture of manual and computer-aided coding. This process will also help in creating unique coding terms that will be used one at a time to generate a manually initiated computer-aided query of every article. The researcher will then record or capture an aspect of each coding article into analyzable representations of the article.

When coding the research characteristics, the reported thinking and research is documented in relatively the order. This is primarily because the report incorporates general background or approach, various illustrations of the approach, findings of certain initial research on characteristics, and the outcomes of original research. As patterns and themes are identified through this process, the researcher will have a picture of the model or phenomena based on the relationships created.

Data Analysis

According to Horsburgh (2003), qualitative data analysis techniques are conceptual and relational. In this case, they focus on quantifying the existence of themes and identifying existing concepts respectively. For this study, data analysis will entail comparing, contrasting, and classifying the content of qualitative data. This will be carried out in a systematic and objective manner that effectively describes the meaning of the content.

During data analysis, the researcher will provide general information regarding the data before reporting results of the content analysis process. In this case, the researcher will provide an overview of the data source based on the research propositions. This will be followed by making comparisons of the data, which will also involve questioning the emerging patterns and themes as well as emerging conceptualizations to help in enhancing internal and external validity.

As the researcher collects and sorts new data into various categories, constant comparison of the newly collected data will be carried out relative to the previously collected data. An inductive data analysis approach will be utilized during throughout the qualitative content analysis to compare data incidents and categories or propositions. The constant comparison technique adopted for the content analysis will help in aligning the propositions or categories with the collected data.

As previously indicated, this research will involve the use of computer-aided coding as part of data collection and analysis. The most suitable software for coding and analysis that will be utilized in the study is NVIVo, which is a data management program that is highly compatible with a variety of research designs. Its use in this study is influenced by the fact that it is not time-consuming and eases the burden of complex coding and analysis process. Through these benefits, the software enhances the accuracy and speed of the process, which is essential for this study.

The first step in using NVIVo for data coding and analysis in this study will be to create a project that will contain all documents and coding information relating to the project. This will be followed by conducting an electronic search to cover all instances of the results and any recurring patterns. Notably, the electronic search will be combined with manual scrutiny approaches to ensure thorough interrogation of data. After data collection, the next step in using this software will involve storing the search results in different nodes and manually adding the results of manual scrutiny to the respective nodes. The different nodes that will be created in the research will be in each of the research propositions. Generally, the researcher will utilize NVIVo software to identify common themes and patterns regarding the phenomenon under investigation.

Ethical Issues in Research

There are a few different areas of ethical consideration in research such as this. As noted elsewhere in this work, some of the issues described relate to situations that cannot be ethically replicated. There is no way to re-create a nuclear meltdown to effectively test people’s opinions of nuclear power before and after. The only thing to do is to use the research that was already done on this subject, accepting whatever flaws and gaps it might have. The research was guided by the harm principle, wherein the researcher would not do harm.

Another ethical issue is that of privacy. It is important to retain the privacy of any subject that contributes to this research. The chosen methodology allows for the research to be gathered without the involvement of human subjects. Human subjects are the primary source of the need for ethical safeguards, and their absence makes the issue moot. Nevertheless, it is important that the need for ethical safeguards is remembered, because there may be a situation that arises in the course of this research where someone’s privacy does need to be safeguarded, and the researcher will need to understand the protocols that need to be applied.

This research proposal was produced to the highest standards of ethical research. Where human subjects were involved, their privacy was under strict protection. No humans or animals were subject to any risky situations, and full disclosure has been provided to any human subjects so that they had the opportunity for informed consent, prior to performing any research.

Summary of Chapter Three

A multi-disciplinary study involving conditions that are not easily replicable requires a different sort of approach. There is not just one variable involved in this research, but multiple variables working together simultaneously, under real world conditions. The phenomenon of decreased usage of nuclear energy is broad and exploratory in nature, which implies the need to appropriate research methodology in order to effectively examine the issue. Some of the issues that characterize decreased usage of nuclear power include the public’s perceptions of it, how those perceptions are applied in policy, and the widespread notion that nuclear energy is not a sustainable energy source that would mitigate climate change.

The research question to be explored in the study is, “What is contributing to the decreased use of Nuclear Energy despite its potential to solve climate change?” Sustainability aspects or sustainability considerations will be used as the basis of examining the phenomenon of decreased nuclear energy usage and probable ways of reversing this trend. In essence, the significance of nuclear energy relative to its decreased usage will be based on whether this energy source is sustainable and its environmental impacts. The research question is seemingly explanatory since the researcher will focus on examining why nuclear energy has declined in its significance in the global energy mix despite being a suitable alternative for dealing with the problem of global climate change.

Given the nature of the research issue, the researcher has chosen a qualitative content analysis, which is suitable for the study. Content analysis research methodologies usually involve the use of a systematic analysis of the contents of gathered data and inductive strategies geared towards the creation of patterns and themes. Through this method, themes and patterns relating to the phenomenon under investigation will be derived from comparing, contrasting, and categorizing the content of qualitative data obtained regarding the research problem. This research design is appropriate for the study because existing knowledge and literature about the use of nuclear energy is obtained from various studies and surveys that are documented in various articles.

The source of data for this study will be historical, full-text, and peer-reviewed journal articles that will be derived from Google search engine and online databases i.e. EBSCOHost, ProQuest, and Emerald Insight. The researcher will utilize liberal inclusion criteria for selecting these articles based on their relevance to the research question or phenomenon under investigation. Moreover, ‘decreasing’ words that equate to sustainability will be utilized as search keywords. During the process of identifying relevant studies, the researcher will look for journal articles and contextual studies that present words or phrases that equate to sustainability.

Data coding for this study will involve the use of a mixture of manual and computer-aided coding techniques. On the other hand, data analysis will entail using NVIVo software to identify common themes and patterns. During data analysis, the researcher will provide general information regarding the data before reporting results of the content analysis process. In addition constant comparisons and inductive analyses will be utilized throughout the qualitative content analysis as new data is collected.

The process for ensuring internal and external validity will involve questioning when conducting constant comparisons, concept and relationship evaluation, and process validation. On the contrary, reliability of the study will be ensured through adhering to the intrinsic steps of qualitative research, using articles that meet the inclusion criteria, and combination of manual and computer-aided coding.

Since the research will not be carried out on a group of participants, there are no human protection issues that are likely to occur. Actually, the absence of human subjects implies that the issues of confidentiality and privacy associated with human subjects will not arise in this study because the source of data is existing literature from Google Search Engine and online databases.

The next chapter will present data based on the results of the qualitative content analysis process. Since the study does not involve human subjects and relies on existing literature or articles, participants’ demographics will not be included in the chapter 4 of this dissertation. Once the researcher presents data, the next segment in chapter 4 will be discussion of findings based on the results of the qualitative content analysis process.

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