Inadequacy of Forensic Hair Analysis

One June night 13 years ago, a killer fired several shots, killing 30-year-old Perry Harder. The killer and an accomplice loaded the body into the back of a van and drove to an isolated spot outside Winnipeg, Manitoba, where they dug a shallow grave and buried the body. Three and a half months later, someone on a passing train spotted Harder’s body, and in no time, police had a suspect (1). Their suspect, Jim Driskell, ran a machine shop out of a garage and agreed to let Harder store some things there. Most of the items Harder stored there turned out to be stolen during a raid of the garage by police. After police raided the garage they arrested both men. Weeks later, Harder was murdered, and police statements reported that Driskell did it to keep Harder from implicating him in the thefts (2). Driskell maintained his innocence, but a jury heard testimony how three hairs tied Driskell to the victim. Driskell was convicted of murder and sentenced to life in prison. However, in recent years, the science of hair analysis has come under scrutiny and now Driskell’s conviction is in question.

Driskell’s case is not simply an isolated incident — there are many individuals serving life sentences and on death row, convicted as a result of forensic hair analysis. In the past few years, many of those convictions have turned out to be false, setting men and women free based on the inaccuracy and inadequacy of forensic hair analysis. Years of research has led laboratory scientists to conclude that although forensic hair analysis is often instrumental to crime solving, it is essentially inadequate unless extensive nuclear and mitochondrial DNA analysis is also conducted and considered. In Driskell’s case, the police had physical evidence that was hard to refute. In the back of Driskell’s van, the police found three hairs they believed came from Perry Harder caught in the van’s carpet. Those hairs were scrutinized under a microscope, alongside hairs taken from Harder’s body (3). At trial, an expert in hair comparison noted any similarities. If there were more than 20, the hairs could be called a match (4). At trial, the expert told the jury that in his judgment they did match. Driskell was convicted solely on that physical evidence found in the back of his van.

Cases such as Driskell’s have revealed the problems of forensic hair testing, and have spanned numerous research studies on the topic. Microscopic hair comparison matches and mistaken identification have been cited in such studies as the most common factors leading to wrongful conviction. Other forensic experts have argued that the practice does have its uses, particularly when combined with the more discriminating mitochondrial testing. Forensic experts have argued that hair analysis does not carry the same amount of reliability as other tests, and that a prosecution should never be based solely on microscopic hair analysis. Microscopic hair analysis has been widely criticized as being based on subjective interpretations without any science backing them up.

The main arguments against microscopic hair analysis are that it was never meant to identify individuals, because its’ limits are that it can only determine whether hairs have similar characteristics. Problems in forensic testing have risen when analysts have overstated their findings or did not fully explain the limitations of microscopic hair analysis. According to the FBI, a truly accurate hair comparison analysis relies in large part on the individual abilities of the analyst. However, research indicates that mitochondrial DNA testing renders a finding different than that of a microscopic examination, because mitochondrial DNA allows for further discrimination. For example, a scientist might be able to say a known piece of hair and an unknown piece of hair might have similar characteristics, but it is misleading to suggest because of that fact it implicates a particular person in a crime. This paper will analyze forensic hair analysis, and traditional evidentiary methodologies, concluding that although forensic hair analysis is often instrumental to crime solving, it is essentially inadequate unless extensive nuclear and mitochondrial DNA analysis is also conducted and considered. It will also discuss technological advances in this area, and the future of DNA testing in the United States.

History of Forensic Hair Analysis

The science of hair comparison has been used in thousands of criminal cases all over the United States for decades. Hair, because of its widespread presence at crime scenes, has great evidentiary value in forensic science. Even if a suspect has tried to clean the crime scene of any evidence such as personal possessions, fingerprints or footprints, hair strands always seem to stick in the matter found in that area. Since hair is so personal to individuals, it serves as a great indicator of who was there. The forensic testing of hair strands has very early roots. It was first used as evidence in 1861, but did not gain scientific acceptance until after the turn of century, and public acceptance until the late 1950’s. During this time the public acceptance of hair testing was widespread, and police received enormous support for any evidence consisting of hair strands.

Forensic hair analysis originated in the 1970’s, by forensic examiner Barry Gaudette. Gaudette released a study that concluded that hair comparison was so reliable it would likely only be wrong 1 in 4,500 times. Gaudette tested the accuracy of hair comparison and as a result, it became the courtroom science of choice. According to his research, 99.99% of the time the examiners were correct, and jurors rarely doubt the results. But Stafford Smith, a New Orleans lawyer, discovered a critical flaw in that study. In 1994 he was handling a death row case that hinged on hair. Smith, a renowned defense attorney, thought there were definite flaws in placing so much trust and emphasis on forensic hair analysis as an admission strong enough to convict an individual. Smith, a scholar in science as well as law, began a search for published research, but was unable to find any scientific validation justifying the adequacy of forensic hair analysis. Smith did not even find any research studies testing the forensic analysis of hair, with the exception of Gaudette’s report.

Since Gaudette’s report was the only scientific data Smith found, he re-ran Guadette’s test with the assistance of a data analyst at Columbia University. The results, published in the prestigious Columbia Law Review, concluded Gaudette’s 1 in 4,500 finding was so seriously flawed it amounted to modern day snake oil (5). This research served as an eye-opener to those in the detective and forensic professions that had relied so overwhelmingly on Gaudette’s report. Gaudette’s inaccurate conclusions had been held as fool-proof even by the courts and judicial system. Smith’s testing has led forensic examiners and police to question the accuracy of forensic hair testing to prove guilt by itself. The Boston Globe reported in 2003 that at least four American states are taking a closer look because DNA testing has revealed the overwhelming inaccuracy of forensic examiners. One such examiner in Oklahoma has worked on more than 3,000 cases, but DNA testing has revealed she was wrong in several of them.

In the past decade, more than 20 people in the United States convicted on the strength of hair analysis have been set free (6). Driskell has been one of them, as upon re-testing, the hairs found in the back his van did not come from Perry Harder. In fact, further DNA analysis revealed those hairs did not even match each other, and that they had come from three different people. As a result, one can only assume how many convictions based on microscopic hair analysis are invalid. Thus, forensic analysts and scientist have labored to find new methods of analysis upon which to base reliable conclusions. The next sections will discuss the process of hair analysis and new methodologies that have arisen with the advent of DNA testing of hair strands.

Hair Analysis: The Process

Hair grows from the hair follicle, and as the hair is being formed in the generative zone of the hair follicle, it is in contact with and receives nourishment from the blood. As the hair moves upward in the hair follicle, it no longer receives nourishment from the blood and consists of dead cells (7). Once the hair reaches the surface of the skin, it then comes into contact with all things that come into contact with the skin. Because of the original contact with the blood, it is thought by some that the chemical makeup of the hair reflects what was in the blood and the timing of the presence of a toxicant or other substance in the blood (8). While this may be true to a very limited extent, there are a number of factors that make the hair an unreliable clinical indicator for some chemicals that have been in the body (9). Hair comes into contact with a number of chemicals that are in the air and in water that is used to wash the hair (10). Hair is also in contact with chemicals in shampoos, and any dyes, gels, sprays or other cosmetics that may be placed on the hair (11).

Since there is no standardized method for cleaning these external contaminants off of the hair prior to analysis, the potential for inaccurate results from external contamination is widespread. There is no way to tell in the laboratory if a chemical is contained within the hair, and therefore came from with in the body, or if it is on the surface of the hair and did not come from within the body (12). An enormous amount of scientific research studies have indicated that hair analysis is unreliable as a diagnostic tool in crime solving. For example, in one study, the researchers took hair from the head of a single individual and sent portions of the sample to six laboratories; the results varied widely from laboratory to laboratory (13). In another report released by the U.S. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR), the ATSDR concluded that for most substances, the presence of a substance in hair may indicate both internal and external exposure, but such exposure did not necessarily indicate the source of exposure. Additionally, this report also criticized the lack of standard procedures for sample collection, the lack of standardization of methods and quality assurance/quality control among laboratories, and the possible over-interpretation of results far beyond the current body of scientific data and in light of limitations of techniques and procedures (14). These reports indicated early on the need for a more suitable method of hair testing in addition to the traditional microscopic methods.

DNA Testing

Historically, the early 20th century saw the birth of forensic science as a specialized profession, with laboratories and experts who aimed to link suspects definitively to crime scenes. Eventually, handwriting, fingerprints, photographs and blood samples became regularly introduced into evidence, and the belief that “every criminal leaves a trace” became a cornerstone of police investigations (15). By the late 1980s, DNA testing had been widely adopted, and currently has assisted in reversing guilty verdicts of innocent individuals. Just within the past few years, the rise of DNA testing has revealed enormous failings in the microscopic hair analysis that was considered reliable a generation ago. The use of forensic DNA analysis in solving crime is proving to be as revolutionary as the introduction of fingerprint evidence in court more than a century ago. Police and detectives have been using forensic DNA evidence for little more than a decade, however, it has emerged as one of the most powerful tools available to law enforcement agencies for the administration of justice. DNA analysis has been labeled as the next generation of human identification in the science of police investigations and is considered a major enhancement for the safety of all individuals. The scientific underpinnings of DNA analysis are well-tested and conceded to be solid even by critics (16).

The value of DNA to police investigations is enormous. Biological samples collected from a crime scene can either link a suspect to the scene, or rule the suspect out as the donor of the DNA. Evidence from different crime scenes can be compared to link the same perpetrator to multiple offenses, whether the crimes took place locally, across the country, or halfway around the world. Additionally, DNA can also identify a victim through DNA from close relatives. Using modern technology, DNA can be extracted from a small biological sample, such as a few drops of blood. This sample can be analyzed, creating a DNA profile that can be used to identify the individual the blood came from. Next, a DNA profile, drawn from a known biological sample, can be compared to an unknown DNA profile drawn from a different biological sample.

Nuclear and mitochondrial DNA analysis is a lengthy process that can be summarized simply. In a human cell, nuclear DNA analysis is extracted from inside the nucleus. There are two copies of Nuclear DNA in each cell, one that is received from an individual’s mother and one that is received from their father (17). Outside the nucleus are small structures known as mitochondria, which have their own DNA which is circular and is inherited only from an individual’s mother. DNA extraction is possible from either the mitochondria (mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA) and the nucleus (nuclear DNA) (18). As mitochondrial DNA is inherited only from the mother all maternal relatives have the same DNA (19). For example, if you have the same mother all your brothers and sisters will have the same mitochondrial DNA as you. DNA is comprised of four major components, called bases, each represented by the letters A, T, C and G (A — Adenine; C — Cytosine; T — Thiamine; and G — Guanine).

The structure of DNA consists of two long strands bound in a “duplex” with the entire structure coiled in a “double helix” (20). The two strands of the double helix are identical in structure but differ in base sequence. The two strands are held together by specific and mutual attraction between the bases. The sequence of bases along one of the two strands constitute the genetic code, and it is these differing combinations of A, T, C and G. which make individual DNA unique. The analysis of both mitochondrial and nuclear DNA involve an examination of the sequencing of the bases of DNA (21). At this stage the sequence or the order of the bases A, T, G and C. are examined, and it is the order that those bases appear in that makes DNA individual. In crime solving, the sequences of both the target sample and blood reference sample are examined to determine if they are consistent with each other.

Furthermore, the DNA molecule is very stable and can withstand significant environmental challenges, which enables forensic scientists to obtain new information from very old biological evidence or establish important data from badly degraded samples. These factors make DNA testing even more important in assisting to solve old crimes where evidence from the crime scene has been carefully stored. Every week on the news there are reports of how old DNA has solved a crime that occurred years ago, or how new tests regarding evidence has set free an innocent person convicted of a murder charge. Additionally, the stability of the molecule, combined with the discriminating features of each individual’s DNA and the accuracy of current DNA analysis techniques, makes this human identification technology a vital component of most police investigations.

Nuclear and mitochondrial DNA analysis have proved effective in crime solving throughout the United States. The unfortunate outcome of Driskell’s case can be compared to that of “X and Y.” One PRIVATE “TYPE=PICT;ALT=new” December evening in 1994, a woman and her 4-month-old son (X and Y) were abducted and left to die in a wooded area in Pennsylvania. Although the woman’s husband was an early suspect, detectives soon realized that he had not been involved in the crime (22). Evidence revealed the man’s jealous ex-girlfriend was the police’s main suspect. Due to the careful collection of trace evidence from the victim’s vehicle, investigators located a hair, stained with the victim’s blood, on the back of the driver’s seat. Similar to Driskell’s case, in the case of X and Y, hair collected from the inside of a vehicle was also the sole evidence collected. In the X and Y case, laboratory tests were performed on this hair and a sample from the suspect demonstrated that the evidentiary hair had the same mitochondrial DNA sequence as the one from the suspect and possibly could have come from her.

Later, the suspect was tried and convicted of killing both the woman and her baby. In this case, it was the mitchondrial DNA sequence that assisted in solving the crime. The FBI Laboratory began analyzing mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) in casework in June 1996, and since that time, the DNA Analysis Unit II, using mtDNA sequencing techniques, has processed approximately 500 cases (23). Given the many different circumstances that can surround a case, sometimes advantages exist in analyzing mtDNA over nuclear DNA for forensic purposes. First, the location and structure of mtDNA protect it from degradation when exposed to the environment (24). Mitochondrial DNA is buried deep within the cell and has a circular structure, which protects it from deterioration. Also, DNA is bound and protected by a substance, called hydroxyapatite, found in teeth and bones (25). Second, the high copy number of mtDNA gives the forensic scientist a better chance of locating and amplifying a piece of undergraded DNA in a sample (26). Finally, the maternal inheritance of mtDNA can prove advantageous in cases involving missing persons, even though this fact also makes it less discriminating than nuclear DNA because any person who is a member of the same maternal lineage will have the same mtDNA sequence (27).

Forensic Hair Analysis and DNA Analysis

The process by which hair is analyzed has come along way; other testing consists of questions regarding body fluids, whether they are human, where they come from and whose they are. Since the traditional methods of forensic hair analysis have been so inaccurate, those involved in crime solving must take into consideration other methods to corroborate that hair evidence. For example, a KM test that reacts with hemoglobin in blood confirms that a substance is indeed blood. The combination of forensic hair analysis in addition to nuclear and mitochondrial DNA testing can be used together. Blood pattern analysis is capable of answering further questions and assisting in the investigation of what has actually happened in an incident. For example, a suspect may have blood on his clothes but how the blood is on the clothes offers clues to the suspect’s participation in the incident. Blood stains can indicate direct blood touching which could mean the suspect has either held the victim or tried to help the victim. Blood spots on clothes tell a different story as spots can only be caused by violent impact, which would disprove a suspect’s claim that he was trying to help the victim.

Analysis also looks at the lines of blood flying from the weapon as it is brought up and then down on a victim.

The advantages of DNA testing over forensic hair analysis is that very small sources can be used and information can be extracted from very old stains. Testing can also be done on different sources such as hair although it has to have root material for successful testing. DNA testing can also be done on semen, body tissue such as deep muscle tissue within a decomposed torso, saliva, urine, and sweat. DNA testing can also be done on weapons, as knives and guns collect skin cells that can then be profiled. DNA testing has also helped to solve dozens of sexual assault and rape cases. Usually, in sexual crimes acid phosphate tests are used to identify semen. A victim’s underwear can also be investigated to determine whether the damage is recent or self-inflicted. For example, the ends of cloth fibers can tell whether the underwear is torn, cut or just very old. In these cases, pieces of hair without the nuclear and mitochonrial DNA tests would not be a sufficient or accurate means of pinpointing a subject to the crime.

The analysis of hairs and clothes fibers is another way of gathering evidence although the success of DNA has meant that hair analysis is now rarely used. As a result, fibers can provide excellent proof of recent contact and can be used to back up DNA evidence. Additionally, forensic biologists also attend scenes of crime which can cover very large areas, and varied climate conditions. In 1995, a National DNA Database was established, which holds DNA profiles from mouth swabs of convicted criminals (CJ samples) and records of outstanding crimes. Run by the Forensic Science Service in Birmingham, the database currently holds around two million CJ samples and 160,000 crime scene profiles. Obviously the use of such a database to solve crime can only succeed if a suspect has committed a previous crime. However, a large amount of violent crimes have actually been solved by running crime scene profiles against CJ samples. These cases from the past have been solved as the same person commits new crimes or as new CJs are simultaneously logged into the database.

Thus, the traditional forensic testing of hair specimens are inadequate unless extensive nuclear and mitochondrial analysis is also conducted and considered. This combination is key, and will ultimately lead the way in crime solving. For example, several biological techniques are combined to obtain a mtDNA sequence from a sample. The steps of the mtDNA analysis process include primary visual analysis; sample preparation; DNA processing, including extraction, amplification, quantification, and sequencing; and data analysis (28). The first step in the analysis of a hair involves a microscopic comparison of an evidentiary hair and a sample population of reference hairs. If the hair from a questioned source exhibits similar microscopic characteristics as hair from a known source, examiners perform mtDNA analysis to determine, on a molecular level, if the hair is consistent with reference standards from a particular individual (29).

To extract DNA, analysts expose the cellular mixture from the sample preparation step to a mixture of organic chemicals that separate the DNA from other biological material, such as proteins (30). Analysts then purify the DNA sample to prepare it for the amplification process, which makes many copies of the target DNA. After the DNA is copied, it is purified and quantified prior to determining the order of the bases in the DNA fragment (31). The sample undergoes a series of chemical reactions and is then placed in an instrument that “sequences” the bases in the DNA sample (32). However, the testing of DNA is not without error, so it is imperative that mandatory guidelines must be set that patrol its’ testing. The next section discusses the measures that have been implemented to ensure the validity and continued reliability of DNA testing.

DNA Testing Compliance

In order to ensure compliance, the FBI Laboratory has established guidelines for the interpretation of differences and similarities between sequences. For example, at least two examiners independently analyze each sequence obtained, and the FBI Laboratory has collaborated with other laboratories to compile an mtDNA population database containing the sequences from major racial or ethnic groups: Caucasians, Africans, Asians, Native Americans, and Hispanics. The database currently contains 4,142 mtDNA sequences from unrelated individuals in a forensic index and another 6,686 sequences gathered from published literature (33). When a sequence from a sample of questioned origin is the same as a sample of known origin, laboratory personnel search the mtDNA population database for this sequence. Next, the FBI Laboratory lists the number of observations of a sequence in each racial subgroup of the forensic database in a report of a mtDNA examination.

In accordance with FBI procedures, forensic mtDNA analysis uses some extremely sensitive techniques, because the presence of any foreign DNA in the sample can harm the analysis. Any extraneous DNA that is amplified with the evidence has the potential to interfere with the interpretation of the sequence data. Thus, the FBI Laboratory performs many precautionary measures to prevent contamination of evidence and to ensure the quality of results (34). The FBI laboratory also has two external proficiency tests conducted annually for all unit personnel working cases and retains a record of these tests. In addition, the laboratory follows general and specific precautions designed to minimize contamination, including the physical separation of pre — and postamplification areas; the separation of evidence from questioned and known sources in time and, often, space; the proper cleansing of work spaces and instruments; and the use of control samples (35). The FBI Laboratory uses positive and negative controls in mtDNA processing to monitor amplification and sequencing and does not proceed with the mtDNA analysis if these controls fail to meet established criteria (36).

Mandated compliance procedures such as these are necessary to ensure that DNA testing remains adequate and accurate, a measure that has been taken very seriously by police agencies, forensic analysts and government agencies. Only with compliance can any future advances in DNA testing be correctly implemented. The following section discusses and compares the different methods of forensic hair examination. It also discusses how important hair examination is in relation to and in combination with, other evidentiary methodologies.

Comparison of Hair Examination and other Evidentiary Methodologies

A great deal of literature has been published regarding the use of forensic evidence and hair examination methodologies. However, this topic has received much criticism in the area of criminal law and detective work. When testifying in court, forensic scientists are mandated to use terminology such as “consistent” and “similar to” when reporting on the origin of hairs (37). Because of the subjective nature of the analysis, hair is not usually the sole evidence in a trial, and hence, “hair comparison evidence” is generally only of value when used in conjunction with other evidence (38). However, when hair is the only evidence that ties a suspect to a crime, the accuracy of such analysis becomes a crucial factor in solving the crime. The accuracy of such a test can be a difference between a life sentence given to an innocent person, and the arrest and conviction of the actual suspect that did the crime. When there is not any other available evidence, extensive nuclear and mitochondrial DNA analysis should also be performed on the specimen to ensure accuracy.

As evidence, hair can tell an experienced analyst much about the possible source, and in combination with the typing of mitochondrial or nuclear DNA, the forensic profile of an individual. Accordingly, while this practice is useful in the practice of solving crimes, hairs are limited that, when analyzed using traditional microscopic methods, they cannot positively identify an individual. Although great strides have been made in the field of traditional hair examination, many challenges still face scientists. At or near the crime scene, an examiner must find a hair which differs from all other hairs in that setting or location. The characteristics of this hair can be used to separate a suspect’s hair from the hairs of the victim or resident (39). DNA technology is capable of providing a level of individualization toward unknown hairs that could not be achieved with any other type of hair examination. Microscopically, the hairs form a single investigation can be rapidly compared against the standard sets, especially when starting with a large sample set. This rapid, preliminary low cost first step must then be followed with the more time consuming an expensive DNA analysis of the questioned hairs.

A review of the relevant literature also indicates that advances have been achieved in many other areas of forensic science, such as fingerprints. Technology also has improved in the ability to detect latent fingerprints, which are among the most valuable types of physical evidence in criminal investigations. Historically, fingerprints were key to an investigation, however, the availability and likelihood of fingerprints from many different individuals from the same crime scene made this type of evidence difficult to solely base guilt on. Currently, fingerprints are still accepted by the courts as good evidence for personal identification. There are many chemical and physical methods for detecting and visualizing latent prints at a crime scene, and these techniques have expanded the capabilities of investigators at crime scenes (40). Fingerprints can be systematically filed using classic fingerprint classification systems and automated identification systems, which allows for the rapid retrieval of a particular fingerprint card and the arrest of a specific suspect (41).

Traditionally, police depended on a brush to dust for fingerprints. Currently police can use an array of 250 different chemicals and instrumental techniques to enhance fingerprints, in addition to a variety of light sources and lasers. With these techniques, they can identify fingerprints that were difficult to recover several years ago. Forensic laboratories can process physical evidence using various methods, depending on the nature of the latent prints (42). In addition to dusting with powder, techniques include using chemicals such as iodine, ninhydrin reagents, silver nitrate and fluorescent reagents. Many laboratories are also using advanced technology in instrumentation and illumination to enhance latent prints. Thus, such prints in addition to a hair sample stands as a good piece of evidence.

Advances in image-enhancement technology are also helping police visualize evidence, such as imprints and impressions. Imprints are patterns left on hard surfaces; impressions are three-dimensional patterns or indentations made in a softer medium such as mud, sand or snow. A number of nondestructive photographic techniques have been developed to enhance imprints and impressions. These include the use of filters to vary contrast and alternate lighting techniques, such as oblique lighting, polarized light, ultraviolet light, infrared light and various wavelengths produced by alternate forensic light sources (43). The material picked up by a shoe to make an imprint could contain trace elements, minerals, blood and other compounds. However, as with hair fibers, this type of evidence alone is not adequate to base a guilty verdict on. But, as with hair analysis, when used in combination with nuclear and mitochondrial DNA analysis, can assist in crime solving.

Future Advances in DNA testing

The methods of forensic and DNA testing are advancing very rapidly; what was unimaginable only two years ago is now a reality. This is because the field of forensics has made great strides in recent years, as advances in technology and science have given forensic scientists a variety of new tools. DNA analysis is unlocking the mysteries of human identity, while image enhancement technologies are enabling investigators to read clues such as fingerprints, footprints and bite marks. Large DNA-related databases, such the Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) and the Automated Fingerprint Identification Systems (AFIS) help solve crimes that would have been unsolvable only a few years ago. Simultaneously, computer science is enabling police to collect evidence from e-mail and other digital files. Research is ongoing into DNA analysis, biological evidence, arson and cyber crime. The National Institute of Justice is currently undergoing a project to develop low-cost teleforensic capacity for law enforcement agencies; the goal is to use commercially available products to transmit high-quality images and data from a crime scene to a laboratory in real time for quick analysis (44).

DNA analysis can also assist in technology-caused crimes, such as child exploitation on the Internet. In a noteworthy case, two young girls were sexually assaulted in Hartford four years ago and the perpetrator videotaped the crime and broadcast it on the Internet. The Navy spotted the tape at a military base in Japan and notified the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children. Using audio- and video-enhancement technology, the organization concluded that the crime occurred in Connecticut. Based on that small amount of information, the State Police identified the victims and the room where the assaults occurred and arrested a suspect, who has been awaiting trial under a $2 million bond (45). Once the victims were identified, along with the location where the crimes occurred, nuclear and mitochondrial DNA testing was conducted to corroborate the technological evidence. This case clearly demonstrates that forensic hair analysis alone would not have been able to solve these crimes.

Finally, DNA analysis will play a key role at the proposed Connecticut Center for Science & Exploration, scheduled to open late in 2007. According to current plans, visitors will be able to perform real DNA tests and try to solve murder mysteries, in addition to the facility operating as a laboratory where 35 to 40 students can learn forensic science in a hands-on experience environment. Furthermore, the use of DNA in crime investigation received a boost in 2003 with the expansion of the sex-offender DNA database in Connecticut (46). The legislature passed a bill last year to enlarge the database from sex offenders to all who commit a felony. One can only assume that with all of the technological advances in nuclear and mitochondrial DNA testing, that more legislation governing these areas will be passed in the very near future.

Conclusion

The future of all DNA analyses looks promising as techniques for smaller-scale and higher-throughput testing become available. While mtDNA analyses do not provide the discrimination potential of some nuclear DNA tests, mtDNA data often are the only information that examiners can gather from degraded evidence, which is either old or has been exposed to the environment for a significant period of time. The development of forensic mtDNA sequencing over the past decade has been helpful to many past cases and will continue to provide useful information to the law enforcement community in the future. In this way, crimes that innocent people have served time for, such as Jim Driskell, will become past history. Additionally, forensic hair analysis in combination with nuclear and mitochondrial DNA testing will enhance the time frame in which suspects are arrested and charged, as in the murder of X and Y.

Thus, although forensic hair analysis has often been instrumental to crime solving, years of research have indicated its’ error potential. The field of crime solving is not one that can be filled with inaccuracies, for human lives depend on its very accuracy. In cases involving human lives, even a 95% accuracy rate is deemed by everyone in our society as completely unacceptable. However, new methodologies such as nuclear and mitochondrial DNA analysis have given rise to new and old criminal cases being resolved. Forensic hair analysis combined with extensive DNA testing is ultimately the more accurate method, as indicated by a review of the literature and research studies in the area of forensic testing. New technological advances in DNA testing offer hope for victims, police detectives, and government officials in crime solving in the United States, and internationally as well. Perhaps there will come a time when innocent individuals cease to be convicted on faulty forensic hair evidence.

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