Forensics and Digital Evidence
Forensics is a discipline which uses standardized techniques to pull apart an event, analyze what happened, and find a more accurate conclusion to the data analysis than just witness testimony. For centuries, lacking even rudimentary techniques like fingerprinting or blood type analysis, the legal system relied on confessions and witness testimony. We may turn to Ancient Greece for one of the first recorded examples of a type of forensic inquiry. In the anecdote of Archimedes, the scholar was asked by the King to determine if a crown made for him was pure gold or contained silver. It seems the King had supplied pure gold, but suspected the goldsmith of being dishonest. Archimedes had noticed that while bathing the level of the water in the tub rose. He surmised that different objects displace different levels of water. Using a mathematical calculation he determined during his famous “Eureka” moment that silver had actually been mixed in and the goldsmith punished (Archimedes’ Principle, 2004).
As science improved, so did the use of forensic evidence within the Court system. Science, in fact, attempts to find answers and thus, over time, techniques evolve and are tested. These new techniques may be controversial at the time, but once they are subjected to scientific inquiry and go through the process of peer reviewed journals and testing, they become validated. Fingerprinting, for instance, was at one time considered unusable and inaccurate, and then became the standard technique for crime scene analysis. Similarly, DNA evidence required higher levels of accuracy and reliability and is now a global tool in fighting crime. Each succeeding general will use the technology that is standard and available to find the best answers within the legal system, particularly those that use a scientific approach to collection, experimentation and dissemination of evidence (Quinche and Margot, 2010).
Particularly when new techniques are involved, it is vital that the standard scientific method, an agreed upon approach of testing, data collection, replication and dissemination of results, be used. When techniques change, like introducing DNA or Digital evidence, forensic science must have a way to compare issues, findings from the scene of the crime, laboratory testing, and robust analysis of the materials to prove to the Courts that detection methods were done in such a way that there is evidence “beyond the shadow of a reasonable doubt” to present to the Court. The basic paradigms of “What happened?” “Why did it happen?” “How did it and how?” are thus appropriate for the methodology and the types of questions a forensic specialist addresses when searching for the truth. This is important to forensics as we introduce digital evidence in crime scene management, methodology, and reporting information to the Court. Overall, this consists of: 1) Formulation of a hypothesis or using a hypothesis to explain an event or phenomena; 2) Use of the hypothesis to predict the existence of other phenomena, or to predict quantitatively the results of new observations; 3) Performance of experimental tests of the predictions by several independent experimenters; 4) Test the evidence in peer review and prove its worth (technique or result) to the Court (Young, 2010)
Digital Evidence
As technologies have changed, so has the type of evidence that is used within a forensics model. In general, digital or electronic evidence is any evidence that is probative stored or transmitted in electronic or digital form. This is, however, more complicated that simply replacing paper evidence with digital evidence, since the digital evidence is usually something filmed, photographed, or attained that may be challenged in a Court of Law. Therefore, before accepting digital evidence, individual Courts tend to determine if it is authentic and relevant, how the evidence was collected, if it is hearsay and whether copies of certain evidence are adequate or if the original is required (Frieden & Murray, 2011).
Because of the manner in which society has changed and become far more electgronic, the use of digital evidence has also increased drastically. Simply out of convenience in storage, professionality in tone, and accurate, Court have allowed more of the use of emails, digital photography, ATM transaction logs, word processing documents, texts or instant message histories, computer memory (backups, printouts, etc.), GPS data and logs, logs from door locks, and digital/video files (Casey, 2010).
Different legal systems have established different rules for digital evidnece. In the United States, Courts have applied the Federal Rules of Evidence to electronic evidnece similarly as they have to tradictional documentation. New technologies and more secure ways of storage mean that digital evidence tends to be more difficult to modify or destroy if kept in secure locations, yet it is more readily available, can be more expensive, and, with the right tools, more easily duplicated or modified. Because of this, Courts often take extra steps to authenticate the evidence, as well as prove best evidence and privledge. In 2006, for instance, digital evidence was attacked with the notion that it could be modified easily, however Courts are leaning towards rejecting the tampering argument due to techniques that log file changes, keep certain data secure, and even firewalls that protect documents from even being modified (Ryan & Shpantzer, 2009).
Digital evidence is not a single entity that has a singular rule. For instance, photography has gone digital, and thus crime scene photos of shoe prints, tire treads, the condition of bodies, etc. are typically accepted without the need for authentication, as long as they have a clear chain of evidence. However, in most areas, a warrant is needed to seize and analyze digital evidence from a crime scene or a suspect’s home or office. Then, a second “property” warrant is often needed; and in the same manner a warrant for electronic bank records, phone records, the contents of phone or device memory, etc. Indeed, as society moved even further into the digital world, it becomes even more necessary to follow procedure within legal traditions that set rules and standards for technology as a law enforcement tool, as well as part of contemporary evidence (Ami-Narh & Williams, 2008).
Conclusions
Digital evidence, however, almost always requires additional steps to turn the material into evidence (printing out the material, posting on a computer, etc.). Some argue that this change of format does not qualify for evidentiary procedures, but the Federal Rules of Evidence now state that, “if data are stores in a computer . . . An printout or other output readable by sight. Is an ‘original’” (U.S. Government, 2012). Similarly, there are issues surrounding the storage and maintenance of chain of custody issues with digital materials. In this case, there are now international protocols that require a certain series of procedures and techniques to ensure the integrity of the data. Storage must be in a locked area, sometimes with more than one lock, must have levels of security available, must have a means of recording access, and must have a way to legally preserve and protect the evidence for trial. This may include, in some cases, transferring the data from one device to another (e.g. downloading emails or text lists from one device to a USB device for analysis and printing into hardcopy, etc.) (ACPO, 2012).
Finally, as technology influences society, it also affects the criminal element within society. Therefore, it is vital that law enforcement also change techniques in the ability to fight crime. Thus, law enforcement agencies must use electronic forensics within their infrastructure, to train officers to collect and maintain digital evidence, and to ensure that the appropriate tools are available to investigate, analyze, store, and report digitally-based evidence (National Institute of Justice, 2010).
REFERENCES
ACPO. (2012, March). Good Practice Guide for Digital Evidence. Retrieved from datarecoveryspecialists.co.uk: http://www.datarecoveryspecialists.co.uk/cms/ckfinder/userfiles/files/digital-evidence-2012.pdf
Ami-Narh, J., & Williams, P. (2008, May). Digital forensics and the legal system: A dilemma of our times. Retrieved from Edith Cowan University Research Online: http://ro.ecu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1040&context=adf
Archimedes’ Principle. (2004, January). Retrieved from Physics.Weber.edu: forensics is a discipline which uses standardized techniques to pull apart an event, analyze what happened, and find a more accurate conclusion to the data analysis than just witness testimony. For centuries, lacking even rudimentary techniques like finge
Casey, E. (2010). Handbook of Digital Forensics and Investigations. Burlington, MA: Elsevier Academic Press.
Frieden, J., & Murray, L. (2011, XVII 2). The Admissibility of Electronic Evidence Under the Federal Rules of Evidence. Retrieved from Richmond Journal of Law and Technology: http://jolt.richmond.edu/v17i2/article5.pdf
National Institute of Justice. (2010, November 5). Digital Evidence and Forensics. Retrieved from Office of Justice Programs: http://nij.gov/topics/forensics/evidence/digital/Pages/welcome.aspx
Quinche and Margot. (2010). A Precursor in the history of Fingermark Detection and their Potential Uses. Journal of Forensic Identification, 60(2), 129-34.
Ryan, D., & Shpantzer, G. (2009, April). Legal Aspects of Digital Forensics. Retrieved from Carnegie Mellon University: http://euro.ecom.cmu.edu/program/law/08-732/Evidence/RyanShpantzer.pdf
U.S. Government. (2012, July). Rule 1001 (3). Retrieved from federalrulesofevidence.com: http://federalevidence.com/rules-of-evidence
Young, T. (2010, June). Forensic Science and the Scientific Method. Retrieved from Heartland Forensic Pathology: . http://www.heartlandforensic.com/writing/forensic-science-and-the-scientific-method
Get Professional Assignment Help Cheaply
Are you busy and do not have time to handle your assignment? Are you scared that your paper will not make the grade? Do you have responsibilities that may hinder you from turning in your assignment on time? Are you tired and can barely handle your assignment? Are your grades inconsistent?
Whichever your reason is, it is valid! You can get professional academic help from our service at affordable rates. We have a team of professional academic writers who can handle all your assignments.
Why Choose Our Academic Writing Service?
- Plagiarism free papers
- Timely delivery
- Any deadline
- Skilled, Experienced Native English Writers
- Subject-relevant academic writer
- Adherence to paper instructions
- Ability to tackle bulk assignments
- Reasonable prices
- 24/7 Customer Support
- Get superb grades consistently
Online Academic Help With Different Subjects
Literature
Students barely have time to read. We got you! Have your literature essay or book review written without having the hassle of reading the book. You can get your literature paper custom-written for you by our literature specialists.
Finance
Do you struggle with finance? No need to torture yourself if finance is not your cup of tea. You can order your finance paper from our academic writing service and get 100% original work from competent finance experts.
Computer science
Computer science is a tough subject. Fortunately, our computer science experts are up to the match. No need to stress and have sleepless nights. Our academic writers will tackle all your computer science assignments and deliver them on time. Let us handle all your python, java, ruby, JavaScript, php , C+ assignments!
Psychology
While psychology may be an interesting subject, you may lack sufficient time to handle your assignments. Don’t despair; by using our academic writing service, you can be assured of perfect grades. Moreover, your grades will be consistent.
Engineering
Engineering is quite a demanding subject. Students face a lot of pressure and barely have enough time to do what they love to do. Our academic writing service got you covered! Our engineering specialists follow the paper instructions and ensure timely delivery of the paper.
Nursing
In the nursing course, you may have difficulties with literature reviews, annotated bibliographies, critical essays, and other assignments. Our nursing assignment writers will offer you professional nursing paper help at low prices.
Sociology
Truth be told, sociology papers can be quite exhausting. Our academic writing service relieves you of fatigue, pressure, and stress. You can relax and have peace of mind as our academic writers handle your sociology assignment.
Business
We take pride in having some of the best business writers in the industry. Our business writers have a lot of experience in the field. They are reliable, and you can be assured of a high-grade paper. They are able to handle business papers of any subject, length, deadline, and difficulty!
Statistics
We boast of having some of the most experienced statistics experts in the industry. Our statistics experts have diverse skills, expertise, and knowledge to handle any kind of assignment. They have access to all kinds of software to get your assignment done.
Law
Writing a law essay may prove to be an insurmountable obstacle, especially when you need to know the peculiarities of the legislative framework. Take advantage of our top-notch law specialists and get superb grades and 100% satisfaction.
What discipline/subjects do you deal in?
We have highlighted some of the most popular subjects we handle above. Those are just a tip of the iceberg. We deal in all academic disciplines since our writers are as diverse. They have been drawn from across all disciplines, and orders are assigned to those writers believed to be the best in the field. In a nutshell, there is no task we cannot handle; all you need to do is place your order with us. As long as your instructions are clear, just trust we shall deliver irrespective of the discipline.
Are your writers competent enough to handle my paper?
Our essay writers are graduates with bachelor's, masters, Ph.D., and doctorate degrees in various subjects. The minimum requirement to be an essay writer with our essay writing service is to have a college degree. All our academic writers have a minimum of two years of academic writing. We have a stringent recruitment process to ensure that we get only the most competent essay writers in the industry. We also ensure that the writers are handsomely compensated for their value. The majority of our writers are native English speakers. As such, the fluency of language and grammar is impeccable.
What if I don’t like the paper?
There is a very low likelihood that you won’t like the paper.
Reasons being:
- When assigning your order, we match the paper’s discipline with the writer’s field/specialization. Since all our writers are graduates, we match the paper’s subject with the field the writer studied. For instance, if it’s a nursing paper, only a nursing graduate and writer will handle it. Furthermore, all our writers have academic writing experience and top-notch research skills.
- We have a quality assurance that reviews the paper before it gets to you. As such, we ensure that you get a paper that meets the required standard and will most definitely make the grade.
In the event that you don’t like your paper:
- The writer will revise the paper up to your pleasing. You have unlimited revisions. You simply need to highlight what specifically you don’t like about the paper, and the writer will make the amendments. The paper will be revised until you are satisfied. Revisions are free of charge
- We will have a different writer write the paper from scratch.
- Last resort, if the above does not work, we will refund your money.
Will the professor find out I didn’t write the paper myself?
Not at all. All papers are written from scratch. There is no way your tutor or instructor will realize that you did not write the paper yourself. In fact, we recommend using our assignment help services for consistent results.
What if the paper is plagiarized?
We check all papers for plagiarism before we submit them. We use powerful plagiarism checking software such as SafeAssign, LopesWrite, and Turnitin. We also upload the plagiarism report so that you can review it. We understand that plagiarism is academic suicide. We would not take the risk of submitting plagiarized work and jeopardize your academic journey. Furthermore, we do not sell or use prewritten papers, and each paper is written from scratch.
When will I get my paper?
You determine when you get the paper by setting the deadline when placing the order. All papers are delivered within the deadline. We are well aware that we operate in a time-sensitive industry. As such, we have laid out strategies to ensure that the client receives the paper on time and they never miss the deadline. We understand that papers that are submitted late have some points deducted. We do not want you to miss any points due to late submission. We work on beating deadlines by huge margins in order to ensure that you have ample time to review the paper before you submit it.
Will anyone find out that I used your services?
We have a privacy and confidentiality policy that guides our work. We NEVER share any customer information with third parties. Noone will ever know that you used our assignment help services. It’s only between you and us. We are bound by our policies to protect the customer’s identity and information. All your information, such as your names, phone number, email, order information, and so on, are protected. We have robust security systems that ensure that your data is protected. Hacking our systems is close to impossible, and it has never happened.
How our Assignment Help Service Works
1. Place an order
You fill all the paper instructions in the order form. Make sure you include all the helpful materials so that our academic writers can deliver the perfect paper. It will also help to eliminate unnecessary revisions.
2. Pay for the order
Proceed to pay for the paper so that it can be assigned to one of our expert academic writers. The paper subject is matched with the writer’s area of specialization.
3. Track the progress
You communicate with the writer and know about the progress of the paper. The client can ask the writer for drafts of the paper. The client can upload extra material and include additional instructions from the lecturer. Receive a paper.
4. Download the paper
The paper is sent to your email and uploaded to your personal account. You also get a plagiarism report attached to your paper.
PLACE THIS ORDER OR A SIMILAR ORDER WITH US TODAY AND GET A PERFECT SCORE!!!
